
Book J^v^I 

Copyright^" . 



COPSilGHT DEPOSnS 



The 

Educational System 

of Pennsylvania 

By 
J. M. YETTER, A.M., Pd.D. 




COCHRANE PUBLISHING COMPANY 

TRIBONE BUILDING, NEW YORK 

1909 



J' 



Copyright^ 1909, 

BY 

COCHRANE PUBLISHING CO. 

248296 



An Account 

of 

the Events which led to 

Founding of the Pennsylvania 

School System, 

The Plan of the System as 

Expressed in the Laws 

and 

The Practical Interpretation and 

Working out of the Plan. 

By 

J. M. Yetter, A. M., Phi D. 

East Stroudsburg State Normal School. 

Written as a thesis for the Doctorate 
of Pedagogy in New York University. 



PREFACE. 

It seemed best to divide the "Educational System of 
Pennsylvania" into three parts or divisions : Part I 
treats of the elements contributing to the system, and 
tells how, out of such a conglomerate of people with 
much diversity of opinions, ideals, and beliefs, a general 
plan was at last formed and accepted. Part II treats of 
the system as planned and formulated by law. Part III 
shows what the system is in actual practice. 

Of Part I we claim no original material, but at least 
some new interpretation of old facts. Part II discusses 
the system in a different and, we believe, a better planned 
and more systematized way than has ever before been un- 
dertaken. 

In Part III the working of the system is described 
from our own experience, which includes work done in 
the common, ungraded country school, the city graded 
school, the State Normal School, and the college. Thus 
from personal experience in and with the system we ob- 
tain the information upon which almost the entire con- 
tents of Part III are founded. 

It will be noticed that the system led the people rather 
than the people urged forward the system. Governor 
Wolfe sacrificed the office of governor a second term for 
the system's foundation, and likewise Governor Bigler 
urged its improvement by the law of 1854, though fully 
realizing that it meant his political death. Fortunately 
for the system the successors of both these governors 
stood by the ideas of their predecessors on school mat 
ters. 

5 



6 PREFACE 

Instead of popular sentiment urging forward these 
great improvements they were quickly followed by its de- 
cided rebuke. It must not be supposed, however, that 
the populace was opposed to education or any improve- 
ment of the system, but the variety of ideas as to 
methods of obtaining these advancements was often the 
cause of much trouble and hindrance. 

The first scheme seems to have been entirely new and 
soon needed revision, yet it showed both plan and pur- 
pose, as will appear on reading Part 11. 

Part III shows how unthought-of agencies and influ- 
ences often produce different results from those antici- 
pated. To plan is one thing, to execute may be another, 
and the executing of the plans was left necessarily into 
the hands of those who often interpreted and carried out 
the plans in a way far different from that intended or ex- 
pected by the authors. 

It is hoped that Part I may show the kinds of people 
who desired a school system and how they struggled for 
it. Part II what the plan was and how it developed, and 
Part III how the people interpreted and carried out the 
plan. 

With gratitude, mention is here made of State Supt. 
N. C. Schaeffer, City Supt. M. L. Brembaugh and ex- 
U. S. Commissioner W. T. Harris for assistance in ob- 
taining material. 



CONTENTS. 
Part I. 

Introduction. — What must be taken into considera- 
tion in writing a history? Variety of -early schools. 
Ideas of various elements of the population : the Swedes, 
Germans, Quakers, William Penn. — 11-16. 

Chapter I. — Early Schools. All in favor of educa- 
tion, parochial schools and their influence upon the 
schools of to-day. Higher education, "Subscription" or 
"Pay" schools and their influences upon present prac- 
tices. Kind of teachers in Pay schools. Cost of schools. 
Schools for the poor, Lancaster schools and their influ- 
ence. — 19-23. 

Chapter II. — Efforts for a regular system. Penn's 
ideas as given in his frame of government. Need of 
popular sentiment. Constitution of 1776. Timothy 
Pickering and the constitution of 1790. Plan for a sys- 
tem. State Aid to the Poor. Dissatisfaction. Difference 
of Opinion. "Society for the promotion of a rational sys- 
tem of education." Opposition to the law of 1834. Thad- 
deus Stevens. — 24-40. 

Part II. . 

The System as based on the Law of 1834. 

Chapter L— Township government, Board of Direc- 
tors, organization of the board, Duties of Directors, 
Changes by the law of 1854. Manual labor. Criticism, 
—43-46. 

Chapter II. — County Government. Duties of In- 
spectors, to visit schools, to examine teachers, to issue 



8 CONTENTS 

certificates. Changes in county government by the law 
of 1854. County Superintendent, his selection, his duties, 
to examine teachers, issue certificates, maTce annual re- 
ports to state superintendent, to call and preside at teach- 
ers' institutes. The School Journal. The law of 1854 
Opposition to the law, attempts to repeal. Workings of 
the office of county superintendent. — 47-54. 

Chapter III. — State Government. Secretary of the 
Commonwealth to be State Superintendent of Schools. 
Duties of the Secretary of the Commonwealth as State 
Superintendent of all the Schools; report to the Legis- 
lature, prepare blanks, sign all orders on the State Treas- 
urer, settle controversies, changes in state government of 
schools, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Duties of 
Superintendent of Public Instruction. — 55-59. 

Chapter IV. — State Normal Schools. Need of same 
Law for their establishment. Government of Normal 
Schools, trustees, their duties, meetings of Principals, 
Examinations, aid to Normal Students from the state, 
graduates of Normal Schools to have certificates. — 60-65. 



Part III. 

The practical development of the system. Some practices 
different from the intentions of the law. 

Chapter I. — Township government. Selecting ap- 
paratus. Selecting text-books, agent influence. Selec- 
tion of teachers. Evils of other states. Teachers said to 
purchase positions. — 69-73. 

Chapter IL — Legislative suggestions. Manual train- 
ing in country schools, Manual training in West Chester 
State Normal School, Manual training in Keystone State 
Normal School. Sewing in the Normal Schools. Phila- 
delphia Manual Training School. Wilkes-Barre, other 
schools. — 74-79. 



CONTENTS 9 

Chapter III. — County Government. Politics in coun- 
ty government. Duties of County Superintendent of 
Schools. His visiting schools. Examine teachers and 
grant certificates. Uniformity of examinations and how 
they work in other states. Dr. Schaeffer's opinion. Our 
county superintendents. Penalties inflicted by county 
superintendents. — 80-85. 

Chapter IV. — State Government of Education. Se- 
lection of Superintendent of Public Instruction. Dr. 
Schaeffer appointed by a Republican Governor, though 
he was a Democrat. Dr. Higbee appointed by the Gov- 
ernor of an opposing party. Governor Pattison and Dr. 
Schaeffer. Neither Deputy at present a college man. 
Duties of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. Su- 
perintendent of Public Instruction to settle all contro- 
versies. Commissioning County Superintendent. — 86-90. 

Chapter V. — Teachers' Institutes. Criticism of Penn- 
sylvania teachers' institutes. Benefits to the public. In- 
structors of institutes too often inexperienced in com- > 
mon school work. Directors' Day. Effect of entertain- 
ing Institutes or Teachers. Liberality of the State to 
Teachers' Institutes. Inattention at institutes. — 91-95. 

Chapter VI. — Normal Schools, Trustees, Politics, In- 
fluence, Appointment of State Trustees. New Course of 
Study. Graduating. Failures. Examinations under the 
State Board. Principals and Faculty of State Normal 
Schools. — 96-102. 

Chapter VII. — Distribution of State Appropriation. 
Certificates of College Graduates. — 103-105. 

Chapter VIII. — Cities of Pennsylvania, duties and 
powers of Controllers. City Superintendents. High 
Schools may be established. Special laws for cities. Spe- 
cial training schools for large cities. Different training 
in Cities than in Country Schools. Powers of Sub-Dis- 
trict Directors. — 106-109. 



10 CONTENTS 

Chapter IX.— Miscellaneous : Colleges, Evening 
Schools, Length of Month, Public Libraries, Physiology 
and Hygiene. The School Journal. Short Summary, Sal- 
aries m Pennsylvania compared with other states. Con- 
clusion. — 110-115. 



The Educational System of 
Pennsylvania 

VARIOUS IDEAS OF EDUCATION. 

In the history of a state or county whose people con- 
sist of a mixture of immigrants and their descendants, 
it is highly essential that the beliefs, ideals, prejudices, 
and other peculiarities of the early and later settlers be 
carefully considered. 

The population of Pennsylvania is the result of a mix- 
ture of Quakers, Germans, Swedes, Scotch-Irish, Eng- 
lish and others. 

We still find here and there an elderly person who re- 
members the Scotch-Irish schoolmasters who were among 
the first to travel from place to place and establish pri- 
vate schools, making teaching their regular occupation. 

Our ancestors tell us that these schoolmasters received 
into their schools children of various religious beliefs and 
of all classes. We can easily see the reason for this. 
These private schools were established where there were 
not enough people of one denomination to support a 
parochial school. If this be true, then it is evident that 
the wages of the teacher would depend on the size of his 
school, that is, the number of his scholars; for some 
who attended those schools tell us that the charges were 
a certain sum for each scholar. Hence the teacher could 
afford to lay aside his religious prejudices for the sake 
of an increase in salary. 

II 



12 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

These were not the only kind of schools found in early 
times, as we shall see later, but they demonstrated the 
possibility of educating all the children of a community, 
with parentage of various beliefs and conditions, in the 
same school with no serious harm to any of their sec- 
tarian ideals. This mixing of various sects in the same 
school had much influence in changing from the expen- 
sive and inefficient parochial school to the much superior 
non-sectarian system of schools of which Pennsylvania 
may feel proud. For inasmuch as both existed in the 
State, they could be readily compared as to expense, re- 
sults and satisfaction. True, some clung to the idea of 
parochial schools for a long time, but, as we shall see 
later, argument and fact finally won against prejudice. 

The Swedes and Germans brought with them the idea 
of education by the Government, but conducted by the 
State church, as we are told by S. G. Fisher, in his "Fed- 
eral and State Aid to Education." The same author con- 
firms what we have already heard from our ancestors, 
that the church was the school house and very often the 
minister the teacher. The Queen's grant of New Sweden 
required state support of church and school. The Ger- 
mans had the same ideas of education. Thus grew up 
various parochial schools among these people. Naturally 
the streams of immigration continued for some years 
from the same countries, and these ideas were thus kept 
alive. One mingling with the descendants of these set- 
tlers, the so-called "Pennsylvania Germans" or "Penn- 
sylvania Dutch," and noting the tenacity with which they 
cling to the customs of their fathers, and especially the 
language, is not surprised that the idea of church control 
of education remained fixed in their minds, and that 
they should resist any attempt of the state to establish 
the non-sectarian public schools among them. Yet they 
were all in favor of education, and we can see, as is re- 
membered by many still living, that one after another 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 13 

they sacrificed their parochial schools for the far more 
efficient public schools. ("History of Education in 
Pennsylvania," by J. P. W., chapter 22. "History of 
Berks County," by Morton L. Montgomery, pages 74, 

75-) 

The position of the Quakers as to education is often 
misunderstood. This is quite natural from seeming con- 
tradictory statements concerning them. Fisher says^: 
"The Quaker despised learning, poetry, music and the 
fine arts as vicious amusements." Bancroft says that 
to them the inner light speaks by an "inward voice, un- 
created by schools, independent of refinement, open to 
the unlettered hand, not less than to the polished scholar, 
a sure pathway into the enfranchisements of immortal 
truths." 

Says Wickensham* : "The Quakers believe in the 
fullest sense that all men are created equal, since to all 
men is given alike the gift of God's Spirit." 

William Penn, in speaking of George Fox, says' : "For 
many times hath my soul bowed in humble thankfulness 
to the Lord, that he did not choose any of the wise and 
learned of this world to be the first messenger in our age 
of his blessed truth to men; but that he took one that 
was not of high degree, or elegant speech, that his 
message and work, he sent him to do, might come with- 
out suspicion, or jealousy of human wisdom and interest, 
and with more force and clearness upon the conscience 
of those that sincerely sought the way of truth in the 
love of it." 

This is all we could find from Penn*s own writings 
that could in any way be interpreted as indicating that 

* "The Making of Pennsylvania," by S. G. Fisher, page 34. 

'"A History of Education in Pennsylvania," page 21. 

'"A Brief Account of the Rise and Progress of the People 
Called Quakers." 



14 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

the Quakers despised knowledge and learning. On the 
contrary we know that they founded Haverford College 
in 1833, and Swarthmore College in 1865, besides other 
institutions of learning. Thus, their actual conduct does 
not seem to indicate any lack of respect for learning or 
education. The history of these institutions shows broad 
ideas of education. The first graduating class of Swarth- 
more was composed of five young women and one young 
man. This college still has coeducation in its fullest 
sense. Whence then was originated the idea that the 
Quakers despised knowledge or even appreciated it less 
than any other sect? We can only say that they prob- 
ably emphasized other requisites as of more importance, 
relatively speaking, than education, while others thought 
differently; or it may be one of those peculiar historical 
facts of a people condemning something and at the same 
time practicing it in the extreme. The Quakers, for in- 
stance, complained about others being so particular about 
dress, and they themselves took great care that their 
dress was according to a prescribed plan. Still Mr. 
Wickersham tells us that the public schools of the Quak- 
ers were open to other sects as well as their own.^ He 
also adds that while the Puritans of New England were 
burning witches one was tried in Pennsylvania and 
found ^'guilty of the common fame of being a witch, but 
not guilty as she stands charged," and thus ended the 
only trial of a witch^ in Pennsylvania. The author adds : 
''No people in the world have been more tolerant of the 
opinions of others or stronger advocates of the rights of 
conscience than the Friends. Such people are not apt, 
seriously, to oppose a system of education for all the 
children of a state. When they came into possession of 

^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
page 413. 

' "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
page 23. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 15 

Pennsylvania they were the rulers and thus they were in 
a measure compelled to soften their opposition to war, 
politics, freeman's oath and the power of government, 
yet a.U^e historians say that they were the most liberal 
oj^-l^prietors." 

In the beginning they advocated universal education, 
and Penn's frame of government contains provisions for 
the same. He writes"": "I know some say 'Let us have 
good laws and no matter for the men that execute them* ; 
but let them consider that good laws want good men, and 
may be abolished or evaded by ill men ; but good men will 
never want for good laws, nor suffer ill ones." Again, 
"That therefore which makes a good constitution must 
keep it, namely, men of wisdom and virtue, qualities that, 
because they descend not with worldly inheritance, must 
be carefully propagated by a virtuous education of 
youth." 

We know that in his travels through Europe he spent 
some time in Holland, which, no doubt, influenced him 
in his plan of government, especially in relation to edu- 
cation. Here is probably the place where his idea of uni- 
versal education originated. With strong recommenda- 
tions from its founder, Pennsylvania, it will be seen, 
owes much to the hearty support of the Quakers for 
everything which tended toward the advancement of the 
education of all her children. 

From Wichersham's History of Education in Pennsyl- 
vania, Montgomery's History of Berks County, several 
articles in the first volume of the Pennsylvania School 
Journal, from various writings, and by judging of the 
national origin, we find all agreeing that the first settlers 
of Pennsylvania were, without exception, in favor of 
education, but the different nationalities and sects had 
different ideas as to how it should be obtained. It is not 



'Pennsylvania's Frame of Government." 



i6 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

surprising that the EngHsh elements were in favor of 
voluntary or subscription schools rather than public 
schools, for according to Holman, England herself had 
nothing else, and even to-day he designates her schools 
as semi-state institutions.^ 

The great problem evidently was to harmonize these 
various elements by a system broad enough to supply 
the wants of all and do violence to the opinions of none ; 
to lead public opinion in such a way as to support a gen- 
eral system of education. 

^"English National Education," by Halman. 



PART I. 



CHAPTER I. 



AN EDUCATIONAL CONTEST. 



In order the better to understand why the settlers of 
Pennsylvania were all in favor of education, the kind of 
education they desired and the kind of schools they es- 
tablished, it would be well to note that they had fled from 
religious persecution ; most were Protestants, and one of 
the two great principles of Protestantism is that "the 
Bible is the only rule of religious faith and practice." 
Hence, it is necessary that every child should learn to 
read the Bible. This explains why the work of Michael 
Schlatter, the first superintendent in Pennsylvania, was 
necessary : Since the reformation, the church and the 
school had been one interest, and some sects are still 
unable to see that they may be as independent of each 
other as the church and state. The various leaders of re- 
ligious sects, therefore, were very much interested in 
schools. Michael Schlatter was one of the greatest of 
these workers. He visited Holland and Germany. He 
published a journal in Europe appealing for money. He 
sailed for America and arrived in Boston in 1746. The 
next year he pushed on to Skippach and Philadelphia. 
He visited many other places in this vicinity, and in the 
same year (1747) he organized the first German Re- 
formed Synod in America. Schlatter found a great lack 
of schoolmasters and ministers. The people were too 
poor to support them, even too poor to support their 
own families. He feared the people would wander from 
their religion. From Holland he collected i 12,000 ster- 
ling. England, Palatinate and Switzerland all received 

19 



20 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

his appeal for funds. He argued that F. A. Muhlen- 
berg, the great patriarch of the Lutheran Church in 
Pennsylvania, took better care of his flock than he could 
of the Reformed people, for he — Muhlenberg — had more 
abundant funds. They were, however, great friends, and 
Schlatter speaks of their affectionate meeting when he re- 
turned from one of his trips to Europe. This may ac- 
count for the many union churches of Lutheran and Re- 
formed congregations in Pennsylvania. 

Schlatter obtained the aid above mentioned mainly 
through the report he made to the various religious bod- 
ies of Europe concerning the condition of education in 
Pennsylvania. This report was translated into EngUsh, 
and became a matter of deep concern of the Society for 
the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. 

Dr. William Smith, afterward Provost of the college at 
Philadelphia, confirmed the report, and argued that the 
English Protestants and the English Government should 
assist in the work, because these people were Protestant 
Germans and because they were subjects of the English 
crown. Penn, also, had given aid to the education of 
schoolmasters in Pennsylvania. All these movements re- 
sulted in the organization of a "Society for Propa- 
gating Christian Knowledge Among Germans in Amer- 
ica," in London in 1754, and i20,ooo were collected to 
assist in the work. 

The Lutherans offered their new school houses at New 
Providence and New Hanover for the use of these non- 
sectarian schools. They were accepted and the schools 
were opened. 

Opposition, however, showed itself, as it seemed to 
some to be a political move, as it would appear to alienate 
the Germans from the political support of the Quakers. 
Others feared it would destroy the German language in 
Pennsylvania. Others were jealous of their religion. 
Yet Schlatter pushed on with his work until 1757, when 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 21 

he resigned his position as superintendent of schools, and 
Dr. William Smith, Provost of the College of Philadel- 
phia, succeeded him. Dr. Smith undertook the work with 
great energy and zeal. But an Englishman at the head 
of the German Schools was less acceptable than his Ger- 
man predecessor. 

All the opposition needed was a leader, and he soon 
appeared in the person of Christopher Sauer. Sauer was 
a printer, who manufactured his own material, a mer- 
chant who made his own wares, a physician who looked 
after the health of his customers. He bought their 
produce and sold them everything they needed. He 
helped every one and accommodated every one and be- 
came rich at it. In short, he was the one grandest Ger- 
man of them all, loved and followed most devotedly, the 
Good Samaritan of Germantown. When his voice 
sounded, the contest was on in earnest. Comparing this 
struggle with the celebrated educational struggle of Hor- 
ace Mann in Massachusetts, that was but a skirmish by 
the side of this mighty war. A war that lasted from 1750 
to 1770. In Massachusetts it was a question of method, 
a pedagogical struggle, but in Pennsylvania it was a 
question of religion, language and nationality. 

Smith, with money back of him, tried to start opposi- 
tion to Sauer along every line. He started his own 
printing press, his own stores, etc. Franklin supported 
him. He, no doubt, was anxious for the success of this 
great school system, that it might furnish students for 
the College of Philadelphia, over which he presided. It 
also pleased Franklin because it tended to unify the peo- 
ple. It tended to make them one m language. It would 
tend to make them one in religion, since everything 
tended more or less toward the English Church and 
toward the discarding the Lutheran and other German 
churches. In fact, one of the brothers of Muhlenberg 
became one of the most prominent ministers in the Eng- 



22 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

lish or Episcopal church. Sauer saw all this, and threw 
all his mighty influence against it. With his business ca- 
pacity, his wealth, and the influence of his many publi- 
cations, his great love for his countrymen, there could be 
but one result. Dr. Smith was utterly routed and his 
schools were abandoned. The Germans did not abandon 
education, but they returned to the churcE and the dis- 
trict school. They were stirred to intense activity along 
educational lines. They more than ever clung to their 
language, customs and religion, a trait still characteristic 
of their descendants after more than one and one-third 
centuries. The Germans won what they contested for, 
but they lost all the benefits that would have resulted 
from the assistance of their English would-be benefac- 
tors. They retained their language, but they lost the 
opportunities for a higher education for which their na- 
tures craved. This struggle led them to mistrust any 
educational advancement along non-sectarian lines and 
burdened them with inefficient parochial schools. But 
this has now passed. They still love their language, their 
customs, their religion, but their opposition to English 
schools has now ended, and none are more devoted to 
the cause of education and the common school system of 
the State than the Pennsylvania Germans. It is gen- 
erally supposed that Dr. Muhlenberg was ignorant of the 
designs which Sauer claimed actuated the plans of Schlat- 
ter and Smith. Schlatter, a native of Switzerland, and 
Smith, a native of England, even with Muhlenberg's as- 
sistance, could not combat, successfully, the immense in- 
fluence of the German, Christopher Sauer, especially if 
the latter could make the Germans believe that their 
language, nationality and refigion were being assailed. 
When the contest was over, the union churches of Lu- 
theran and Reformed Congregations began to disagree, 
and the union church idea, then so common, and so suc- 
cessful for the time, now has few supporters. The reac- 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 23 

tion has, unfortunately, in some sections, pitted them 
against each other. But the days of Sauer and Smith 
are past, and the greatest educational struggle of the cen- 
tury is an event of history too important to be omitted 
even in such a brief work as this. Christopher Sauer 
was a firm believer in education; he was a college bred 
man himself, and he sent his son to the best schoolmaster 
of the colony, Christopher Dock of Skippack. Dock 
wrote a work on pedagogy in 1750, but it is claimed that 
Dr. Sauer planned it. He published it in 1770, after the 
writer's death. It was the first work on pedagogy pub- 
Hshed in America. Christopher Dock was a pious school- 
master, and his work is interesting, especially since he 
advocated correspondence between the youth of different 
schools as a means of education. This seems to be an 
anticipation of the modern correspondence schools. 

This great contest waged by English influence against 
German, wealth against personality, cold planning 
against love and devotion, furnishes a true explanation of 
the traits and peculiarities of this unique class of people, 
though the smoke of the battle has long passed from the 
eyes of the contestants. 

This people's brogue and its multitude of peculiarities, 
to some literary genius, may furnish an infinitely richer 
field than ever met the scrutinizing eye of Washington 
Irving as he gazed down the annals of the New York 
Dutch. It may not be too much to expect that some time 
a far greater work than Knickerbocker's History of New 
York may grace the record of this peculiar people. 



24 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 



CHAPTER n. 



EARLY SCHOOLS 



From various county and state histories^ we learn that 
the first schools founded by settlers were of a sectarian 
nature, that is, parochial schools especially in those parts 
— central, southern and southeastern sections — where re- 
ligious sects were concentrated. Nothing is more natural 
than to suppose that, since these people were in favor of 
education and since the countries from which they immi- 
grated allowed the church to control education, they 
would follow suggestions from their churches or from 
their ministers. 

Parochial Schools. — From the same source and from 
the recollections and traditions of old men we learn that 
whenever a church was built the school house followed. 
In many cases, the minister was also the teacher and the 
church the school house. 

When the duties became too great for the minister, 
and the remuneration was sufficient, a teacher was em- 
ployed, who was also the leader in the church choir and 
the "pastor's" assistant. As the minister was always the 
guardian of the school as well as its founder, to be con- 
sistent he would take great care that only teachers of a 
high moral and religious reputation were employed. He 
influenced the selection of teachers through the trustees, 
for many, if not most, parochial schools were controlled 



^Shimmel's "History of Pennsylvania," Kuhn's "Swiss and 
German Settlers in Pennsylvania," Montgomery's "History of 
Berks County," Wickersham's "History of Education in Pennsyl- 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 25 

by trustees. We still have some of these schools remain- 
ing, as the Moravian schools of Bethlehem, Pa. In this 
way the trustees and even the patrons were taught to see 
that only those teachers with suitable qualifications were 
employed. Our own experience and observation proves 
how well this custom is still adhered to. A people may 
be furnished with all the necessary equipments for a per- 
fect system of education, but unless they are interested in 
carrying out the necessary conditions it will require 
eternal vigilance of some external power to prevent its 
falling to ruin. 

Not only popular sentiment but the law of the state 
now demands moral character^ as a requisite qualification 
of public school teachers. The idea of making a teacher 
the leader in Sunday school is still considered in select- 
ing teachers for some districts, especially in rural com- 
munities of the State. This has much to do with the 
high moral standard of the teachers of the State. 

When parents were too poor to pay the requisite tui- 
tion they were allowed to send their children free of 
charge, specially if they belonged to the same sect as the 
school. This privilege, however, depended upon the 
church controlling the schoor; some were more tolerant 
than others. 

It was probably fortunate that these early schools were 
thus controlled, for in this new country it helped the 
various churches combat sheer materialism when every- 
thing in a newly settled State tended to lead in that di- 
rection. 

Higher Ediwation. — Higher education was controlled 
by ecclesiastical influence, with the single exception of 
the University of Pennsylvania ; all other like institutions 
in the Eastern and Central States, such as Harvard, Yale, 
Dartmouth, Williams and Brown in New England, Co- 

^ "School Laws and Decisions," pages 241, 171. 

'See "U. S. Report of Bureau of Education," 1895-96, page 236. 



26 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

lumbia in New York City, Princeton in New Jersey, 
University of Maryland, William and Mary and Ran- 
dolph Macon in Virginia, and the universities of North 
and South Carolinas, together with other seminaries as- 
piring to college work, had ecclesiastical foundation.^ 
Those having sufficient endowment still exist, and are the 
great institutions by which the State is very largely re- 
lieved of the burden of higher education. The training 
of teachers in the State Normal Schools of Pennsylvania 
is an exception to this general rule ; but they will be dis- 
cussed in another chapter. 
p, One great objection to parochial schools was that sev- 

eral schools of different sects must be maintained in 
some districts when there were only pupils for one. Says 
Shimmel in his "History of Pennsylvania" : "It was 
said of the country around Philadelphia that by 1750 a 
school house stood in almost every ridge of woods." If 
these parts most thickly settled were overburdened with 
a variety of schools what can be said of those most thinly 
populated ? 

The folly of these efforts sooner or later became ap- 
parent except to the most bigoted, for the early churches 
were financially overburdened. The teaching generally 
was not stimulated then by the competition of well- 
trained teachers. The denomination of the church to 
which the teacher belonged had more to do with his pay 
and selection than his ability and preparation. Another 
hindrance was the fact that, because the teacher gen- 
erally received his salary directly from the parents of his 
pupils, he was compelled to cater more or less to his 
pupils and their parents. His independence was handi- 
capped and he was unable properly to stimulate the work 
of the pupils. A few of these parochial schools which 
were well endowed still survive, but the great majority 
of parents prefer the free to the pay schools, and while 

^See "Report of Bureau of Education," 1895-96, page 236. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 27 

the more strict sects held their people to parochial schools 
for a long time, nearly all have joined the great free 
school system. 

We have no record of Pennsylvania ever giving state 
aid to any of these parochial schools as did New Jersey 
and other States. In fact, the Constitution forbids it. 
(Art. 3, Sec. 18.) 

Pay Schools. — Intermediate between parochial and 
state free schools was another system called "subscrip- 
tion" or "pay" schools. Dr. Wickersham considers them 
the transition stage from church to free schools.^ In 
communities of one sect and in towns, church schools 
were established, but in districts sparsely populated and 
composed of various sects there was neither money nor 
pupils for the various sects. The churches were too far 
apart for children to reach, especially in winter, for pa- 
rents and adults were often compelled to travel to them 
on horseback. 

The parochial schools were superintended by the 
clergy, the most learned class of the times, who tried to 
secure the best qualified teachers. This the subscription 
school lacked. From Wichersham's and Shimmel's his- 
tories and from the recollection of old men we learn that 
the subscription school was controlled by a board of di- 
rectors or trustees, elected by those who patronized the 
school or helped in its support. This is analogous to the 
present system, in which a board of six directors elected 
by their own township control all the schools of the 
township. The suggestions and wishes of the patrons 
even then were consulted, in selecting teachers, and it is 
still the custom for rival applicants to try to obtain the 
written consent of the patrons of a school and present 
the same to the directors to secure the position. Thus 
we see the influence of these schools on the present 
method of control. 



'History of Education in Pennsylvania," chapter 9. 



28 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

In the case of pay or subscription schools, those who 
sent children paid for their tuition, but often one with 
an extra amount of public spirit, as Jacob Ake of Blair 
county^ would take matters into his own hands and sup- 
ply grounds, buildings, and in some cases assumed the 
entire expense. The land was nearly always donated, 
many of which tracts are still used for school purposes. 
Generally the houses were built by subscription, the citi- 
zens laboring with their own hands and furnishing ma- 
terial. Some schools were endowed by public-spirited 
citizens^ All this continued until the State law of 1834, 
after which those districts which accepted the conditions 
of the law supplied the school funds by means of public 
taxation. Long before the State took control of the 
schools these "pay" schools far outnumbered the paro- 
chial schools. 

Arclius, writing, about 1750, says with some exag- 
geration of the country in the vicinity of Philadelphia, 
"In almost every ridge of woods, there is a school house.'" 

Within recent years subscription schools in the summer 
season were maintained to lengthen the regular school 
term in districts strongly in favor of long school terms. 
Often the moving spirit was a schoolmaster, seeking 
employment, who canvassed a community in need of a 
school and with the advice and assistance of his patrons 
provided accommodations for a school of which, of 
course, he became teacher. This method continued, in 
districts sparsely populated and of various sects, until the 
State free schools were established, and they were, by 
Wickersham and others, considered the real forerunners 
of our present system of schools. 

Some of Pennsylvania's greatest men, such as Thad- 



^ "History of Education," by J. P. Wickersham, page 181. 

^Shimmel's "History of Pennsylvania," pages 280-84. Wicker 
am's "History of Education in Pennsylvania," chapter 9. 

^See "History of Education," by J. P. Wickersham, page 179. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 29 

deus Stevens, Joseph R. Chandler, Governor George 
Wolfe, and others, began their career as schoolmasters, 
making it a stepping-stone to other stages of usefulness. 
Certainly the pay school was a good training for those 
beginning life as teachers, for they generally sought out 
a district in need of a teacher, that is, they found a want 
to be supplied and then they supplied it. To do so, they 
must solicit pupils from their parents or guardians, and 
then to be successful they must still hold in the minds 
of the patrons the necessity of keeping their children in 
school. Since parents are largely influenced by the opin- 
ions of the pupils, the teacher had the double end ever 
before him — to properly teach and discipline his school 
and still hold the good will and patronage of the pa- 
rents of the district. 

Wickersham and others would have us believe what 
we can readily understand, that seldom children too poor 
to pay were kept from school by the teacher or trustees.^ 
One of the first steps toward free schools taken by the 
State was the paying of tEe tuition of the poor by the 
State." 

As might be supposed, some preferred to be classed as 
poor rather than pay for their children's education. Oth- 
ers too poor to pay and too proud to accept charity left 
their children to grow up uneducated. This was not the 
land for children to receive the stamp of poverty in order 
to be educated. 

Schoolmasters of Pay Schools. — "Pay" or "subscrip- 
tion" schools were largely filled with itinerant school- 
masters, who were mostly foreigners. Wickersham de- 
scribes them as "odd in dress, eccentric in manners, 
oftentimes intemperate, with knowledge limited to the 

* "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
page 180. 

'"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
'.age 263; also Act March, 1802, P. L. 



30 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

merest elements." "In the school room they were gen- 
erally precise, formal, exacting and severe.^ Those who 
were good scholars had previously failed in some previ- 
ous undertaking, met disappointment that had soured 
them against society, and driven them to seek a liveli- 
hood in comparative isolation, or belonged to a class of 
queer characters and purposeless adventurers, 'cranks' 
that find their way in large numbers to every new com- 
munity and float about rudderless on the surface of its 
affairs." The reason that better teachers were not em- 
ployed is plain, there was little about schools to attract 
young men of energy and ability, poor school houses, 
poor equipment if any at all, poor and very often uncer- 
tain pay. Though parochial schools had some system and 
superintendence, pay schools lacked both. It was time 
for the state to begin to look after education. 

Cost of Pay Schools. — Besides, the expense was enor- 
mous compared to the results. All educational experi- 
ence must show what the legislative committee discov- 
ered, namely, that the "money expended by the public and 
by individuals throughout the State, for education in the 
common schools, was sufficient, if applied under the con- 
trol of agents famiHar with the most approved system 
of elementary instruction, to extend the benefits of an 
education to all the children within the State."^ In 1829 
the number of children in the state between the ages of 
5 and 16 years was believed to be not less than 350,000.* 

State Aid to Education. — Furthermore, the custom of 
the State, in paying the tuition of the poor children, 
greatly strengthened an educational interest in private 



^"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
pages 212-13-14-15. 

""History of Education," by Wickersham, page 275. 

"Hon. C. Blyth, in report to House of Representatives, Feb. 
28th, 1829. Compare "History of Education," by Shimmell, page 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 31 

schools and seminaries, which combatted the efforts to 
pass laws for a general system of education for years, 
and in the case of State normal schools, for the training 
of teachers, remains victorious to this day. While there 
may be disadvantages in this, still these private corpora- 
tions assist the State in molding popular sentiment in 
favor of trained teachers. They have money invested 
with no direct return, their interests and that of the 
State are mutual, they stimulate a strong desire in the 
minds of the public for trained teachers for the public 
schools, and they assist the State in supplying them. 

Lancaster System. — A peculiar system of education 
known as the Lancaster System^ deserves special men- 
tion at this time. It was named after its founder, Mr. 
Joseph Lancaster, born in Kent street, London, in 1778. 
He was a Quaker, and at the age of twenty began teach- 
ing poor children in his own home. The school so in- 
creased in size that a house was built for its accommo- 
dations. Sometimes a thousand children were in at- 
tendance. Lancaster and the pupils were both too poor 
to furnish means to employ assistants. Monitors of the 
older and more advanced pupils were employed to in- 
struct others of lower grade. Thus the system sup- 
ported itself. It became quite popular in England and 
became known throughout Europe. One recommenda- 
tion was the cheap way in which the poor could be edu- 
cated. Model and normal schools were established for 
the training of teachers by Lancastrian societies. In 
1 81 8 it was introduced into New York, and about the 
same time in Philadelphia. Many professing skill in the 
new method established schools and competed for patron- 
age. There was competition between teachers, and for a 
time it seemed as if it would supersede all other systems. 

Lancaster himself came to New York in 1818 and soon 



^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, pages 
270-285. "History of Pennsylvania," by Shimmell, pages 183-4. 



32 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

pushed on to Philadelphia, where he remained some time 
organizing the schools on his plan. It furnished free 
or nearly free education for the poor. By this system 
one teacher, with his monitors, was considered sufficient 
for a school of one thousand pupils. This monitor teach- 
ing was a sham or farce to teaching, and yet it clung to 
Philadelphia until the schools were thrown open to rich 
and poor alike. It, however, showed the necessity of 
trained teachers, and the normal schools of the State 
owe much to the sentiment originated by the Lancastrian 
system. It also lessened the cost of education in these 
early times, and probably hastened the adoption of the 
free school system.^ 

^Compare "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. 
Wickersham, page 270. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 33 



CHAPTER III. 

EFFORTS FOR A REGULAR SYSTEM. 

Penn's Ideas. — As before mentioned, William Penn, 
in his "Frame of Government," made provision for edu- 
cation. In his second or revised "Frame of Govern- 
ment," there was a compulsory law^ requiring all parents 
and guardians of children to see that they were taught to 
read and write at the age of twelve, and then each was 
to be taught some useful "trade or skill." The penalty 
for neglect in this matter was a fine of five pounds for 
each child thus neglected ; still the law was more or less 
a "dead letter." The attention of the people was too 
much occupied with other matters. Besides, in some 
cases, there were no teachers or school houses provided, 
and the tuition must come directly from the parents. It 
is far different when it costs the same, whether parents 
send their children to school or not. It is one thing to 
say, by law, what must be done, but another to provide 
means that the people can obey the laws. Many of the 
settlers came from England, where universal education 
was unknown, where only those who were willing and 
able educated their children;^ where education was, in a 
measure, a mark of class distinction. Uneducated set- 
tlers could hardly see the necessity for educating their 
children. It was required that the laws^ be one of the 
books of the public schools, but there is no record of this 

^Wickersham's "History of Education in Pennsylvania," pages 
32-36. 
' "English National Education," by Holman. 
'Great Laws," chapter LX. 



t **t 



34 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

provision ever being carried out; besides it would not 
have reached the parents if it had. The right kind of 
popular sentiment was needed. Free schools were 
needed, that it might cost the parents nothing directly 
for the education of the children. It took one hundred 
and fifty years of agitation to bring about these results. 

The first constitution in 1776 required that "A school 
or schools shall be established in each county by the 
legislature for the correct instruction of youth," etc., but 
there was no incentive for the careless and no specified 
time when the provision should be carried into effect. 

In 1789 Timothy Pickering, a native of Massachu- 
setts, but a resident of Pennsylvania of the section set- 
tled by people from New England, led in an attempt to 
introduce the New England system of general educa- 
tion."^ This having failed, a compromise measure was 
offered, under which the battle for free education of all 
children was fought for many years. The revised con- 
stitution of 1790 contained the following clause: "Article 
VII, Section I. The legislature shall, as soon as con- 
veniently may be, provide by law for the establishment 
of schools throughout the State in such manner that the 
poor may be taught gratis." It also provided for the en- 
couragements of the "arts and sciences" in "one or more 
universities of learning." 

State Aid to the Poor. — It will be seen by this that the 
State was only trying to educate the poor. Others must 
pauperize themselves before they could obtain the privi- 
lege of free education. The legislature might delay ac- 
tion indefinitely, for they might not think that the "con- 
venient time" had come to establish schools. 

Dissatisfaction. — No one was satisfied. The discrimi- 
nation in favor of poverty was distasteful, yet no agree- 

^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
pages 68-69. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 35 

ment for anything better could be reached. There was 
too great variety of opinions and interests, for the opin- 
ions of people depended largely upon their ancestral 
country. In Sweden and Scotland the State controlled 
education through the church. In Germany it was nearly 
the same, and England had no free pubHc schools. So 
it will be seen that it was no small undertaking to har- 
monize all these heterogeneous elements of population. 
What suited one was distasteful to others. The Quak- 
ers, Lutherans, Reformed, Mennonites, and other re- 
ligious sects had their own parochial schools, some en- 
dowed, in the more thickly settled parts of the State, and 
they did not wish to surrender them to the State nor 
support them and still be taxed to support schools in 
other sections of the State. Some very much feared 
that a system of public schools would fail to support the 
right kind of religious instruction. It was plain that 
the more densely populated and wealthy sections could 
support schools for themselves cheaper than to join in a 
general system of education, if rural districts should re- 
ceive the same amount of aid per capita as towns and 
cities. They would receive more than they paid, while 
the thickly populated districts would receive less. This 
is almost always a sensitive point, and the State has not 
yet been able to give the same educational advantages to 
all of her children, nor is the burden of taxation for 
educational purposes resting equally on the shoulders of 
all of her citizens. (Compare tax rate of various dis- 
tricts.) 

Difference of Opinion. — Still all those elements were 
in favor of education, but they differed in opinion as to 
the kind of system to be adopted. Multitudes of reasons 
were given why the State should let education alone.^ 



^"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
pages 320-325. 



36 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

Some reasons then mentioned, as recorded in Wicker- 
sham's history and recalled by legends from old men, 
are still brought forward against education. The old 
aristocratic families^ still held to the idea of class dis- 
tinction, and they saw only trouble resulting from the 
principle of equality, upon which the school system was 
being planned. They argued that to educate those of the 
lower scale of society was to unfit them for their posi- 
tion in life and make them unhappy. They must remain 
in the station in which they were born. A noble must 
be born in a castle, he could not be born in a cottage. 
They could not understand the leveling principle upon 
which free schools were to be established. Another 
class opposed any change. We still have that class. 
Some religious denominations had their own schools, and 
unanimously opposed a general system of free unde- 
nominational schools. They had good reason, but they 
were in favor of education. Some Germans objected to 
the proposed system because they feared it would destroy 
their language and institute English in its place. But, 
as might be supposed, the uneducated, narrow-minded, 
ignorant and penurious continued their opposition longest 
and with most vigor. It was argued that one who had 
no children should not be compelled to assist in educating 
other people's children; that education of the masses 
would breed idleness, crime and vice; that the people 
would be bankrupt; that the hardworking man should 
not be compelled to assist in educating the children of 
"lazy drones" ; that the compulsory idea of free educa- 
tion was tyrannical to the extreme; in short, as quoted 
by Wickersham^ in their own harsh language that "free 
schools are the hotbeds wherein idle drones, too lazy for 



^"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
page 319. 

^"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
page 321. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 37 

honest labor, are reared and maintained; the free school 
system was originated and supported by its partisans for 
the purpose of making places for men too lazy to work, 
and the school tax is a- thinly disguised tribute which the 
honest, hard-working farmer and mechanic have to pay 
out of their hard earnings to pamper idle and lazy 
schoolmasters." Too often, doubtless, the character of 
the schoolmaster was a just cause for dislike, but it was 
the fault of conditions then existing. When the standard 
for teachers was raised by requiring certificates there 
was less cause for complaint. When the profession was 
elevated teachers rose to the requirements. This class of 
opponents, as to-day, were found in greater or less num- 
bers all over the State, and through "common cause" 
those who opposed free education of all the children 
alike for other and better reasons joined their ranks and 
increased the power and influence of the opposition. 
ui uopn;i;suoo ;sjg aq; mojj p9;six3 X|jB3j uot;b;i5b siqx 
1776. Sometimes the question was put in the back- 
ground because of wars and other social problems. In 
1814, a "Society for the Promotion of a Rational System 
of Education" was organized in Philadelphia, and in 
1827, the "Society for the Promotion of Public Schools 
in Pennsylvania." Other societies followed and conven- 
tions of teachers were held. This kept up the fight and 
finally the law of 1834 was almost unanimously passed. 
This gave us a State system which still lives, though 
much changed and improved."^ 

Opposition to the Law of 18^4. — The passage of this 
law did not end matters. The northern section of the 
state settled by immigrants from New York and New 
England, and the western sections, settled largely by 
Scotch and North Irish, received the law with gladness. 



^"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
page 330. 



38 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

But the other portions generally opposed the law. Floods 
of petitions^ signed by 32,000 names came to the legis- 
lature, but as is said "more than 10 in 100 depended on 
some one else to sign their names and not 5 in 100 
signed in English." This in itself was a very strong 
proof of the necessity of free education. 

At this time much depended upon Governor Wolfe. 
Though knowing it would mean defeat he, without hesi- 
tation, stood firm for free education, and his successor, 
Governor Ritner, followed his example. 

Thaddeus Stephens. — At the same time, another cham- 
pion of the children appeared in the person of Thaddeus 
Stephens, a native of Vermont, but a resident of Adams 
county, Pennsylvania. With no outfit of personal popu- 
larity or great political leadership he came to the sup- 
port of the law, establishing free schools when it was 
most needed. He arrayed himself on the side of free 
schools with a. boldness and determination which inspired 
confidence in its supporters, and with convincing argu- 
ment such as brought in line the wavering, with a de- 
fiance that struck terror to its foes, and thus the law of 
1834 was not only sustained, but revised and improved 
by such a majority in the House that the Senate was 
compelled either to acquiesce or let the original law of 
1834 stand. It chose the former, and thus the common 
school system of Pennsylvania was saved. 

The speeches made by Mr. Stephens in the contest 
and in favor of colleges and academies are well worth the 
careful reading of every student of the educational his- 
tory of Pennsylvania. Without the efforts of Mr. 
Stephens, nothing but the veto of Governor Wolfe could 
have saved the free school law, and Pennsylvania might 
have been far behind her neighboring States in the 



^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
page 330. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 39 

work of education. "As it was," says Mayo, "she placed 
herself twenty years ahead of her neighboring State, 
New York."' 

Thus from its settlement in 1683 until 1834 was the 
question of education in Pennsylvania agitated, varying 
in intensity according to the number of other absorbing 
topics. The free school system was the result of many 
years of struggle and experiment. During all this time, 
the greatest need was proper public opinion and men to 
mold it into form so as to be practical with a population 
of such heterogeneous elements. Very few of the people 
of Pennsylvania were opposed to education, but the kind 
of education and the method and cost of obtaining it pre- 
sented as great a diversity of opinion as there were di- 
versity of nationalities and religious sects. It took all 
this time to harmonize these elements enough to make a 
general school system practical, and though it was actu- 
ally established by the act of 1834, yet the work of im- 
proving and organizing was a task of no small magni- 
tude. 

Before entering upon the important topic of organiza- 
tion of the system it seems proper to pay more than a 
passing notice to two men who had much to do with the 
work of founding a real system of education. 

Samuel Buck, who drafted the act of 1834, was a na- 
tive of New England. He was a thorough school man, 
having taught in France, where he spent some time at 
school. Strange to say that H. E. Scudder, in his 
"Recollections of Samuel Buck," omits to mention his 
services to the schools of Pennsylvania. 

Timothy Pickering had had much experience in pub- 
lic life. He served in the American Revolution as 
colonel, and in 1777 became Washington's adjutant-gen- 
eral. He was a delegate to the Pennsylvania constitu- 
tional convention in 1787 and 1790. He negotiated seven 

^Report of Commissioner of Education, page 263. 



40 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

treaties with Indians. He served as Postmaster-general 
and Secretary of War. He served as Secretary of War 
under both Washington and Adams. He was a Senator 
from Massachusetts from 1803 to 181 1, and a member of 
the war board of his State from 1812-1815, a member 
of Congress from 1815-1817, and decHned a re-election. 
He died in 1829. 

His attempt to introduce the New England system of 
education was a failure, but it assisted in molding popu- 
lar sentiment that a compromise measure might be ac- 
cepted. 



PART II. 



THE SYSTEM BASED ON THE LAW OF 1834. 
CHAPTER I. 

TOWNSHIP GOVERNMENT. 

Though William Penn in his "Frame of Government" 
strongly advocated the education of all the children, and 
the constitutions of 1776 and 1790 enjoined it, there was 
no provision for a general system of education in the 
State until the act of 1834 (April) made such a system 
possible. 

Township Government. — By the provisions of this act, 
each county constituted a division, and each township, 
borough or ward a district. Thus the township was 
made the unit of the system. The schools of the town- 
ship were under direct control of a board of six direc- 
tors,'' elected in September, in the same manner and at 
the same time as other township officers. The term of office 
was fixed at three years, two directors being elected each 
year, so that the experience of one board could be handed 
down to the next. This plan has its advantages and its 
disadvantages. It tends to make the work conservative, 
for the older members would naturally have more influ- 
ence than those newly elected, yet it might make changes 
for improvement difficult. Very much depends upon the 
kind of officers in charge of the schools as to whether or 
not the good of the old methods and policies be continued 

^Sec. I, P. L., 1834. 

''See. 2, P. L., Act April, 1834. 

43 



44 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

and the poor discarded for better. A board of directors 
in control of the schools of a whole township also has its 
advantages. The work of the different schools may be 
compared and thus they may learn from each other. If 
all the directors for a school are from the patrons of the 
school, none of them have the advantage of seeing events 
in which they themselves are not so directly interested. 
By the township system there are some who are di- 
rectly concerned as patrons, while others look at matters 
without being so closely connected with them. Again 
little troubles will be passed over harmlessly, if patrons 
must deal with officers all over the township, more read- 
ily than if they were all in the same neighborhood. Thus 
it will be seen that the township system has its advan- 
tages as well as disadvantages compared with the single 
school system. 

School directors were to receive no compensation or 
remuneration for their services. This has never changed, 
and directors still serve without pay, and the examples 
of conscientious and thankless work on the part of direc- 
tors in performing their duties are very numerous indeed. 

Organization. — The board must organize in ten days 
after their election, annually choosing their own officers, 
including treasurer, unless there is a township treasurer, 
in which case he shall be treasurer of the board as per 
act of 1834, but the act of May, 1854, changed this so 
that one of the board or any one else may be treasurer. 

Duties of Directors. — The act of 1834, Section 5, made 
school tax a county tax which was laid by a joint meet- 
ing of the county commissioners and a delegate from 
each district, but since^ that time it has been made a mat- 
ter for the directors to decide for their own district. By 
the law of 1834, the directors were to determine the num- 



^Act May 8, 1854, Sec. 98, P. L., page 623, also act of Apr. 9, 
1872, Sec. I, P. L., page 46, and act of May 19, 1877, Sec. i, P. L., 
page 130. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 45 . 

ber of schools to be opened in their respective districts, to 
cause suitable buildings to be erected, purchased or hired, 
for schools; to appoint capable teachers at liberal sal- 
aries ; to admit scholars ; to have the general superin- 
tendence of the schools of their respective districts; to 
pay the necessary expenses incurred thereby, by orders 
drawn on the treasurer of the district, signed by the 
president and countersigned by the secretary of the re- 
spective boards. 

All these duties the boards of directors still perform. 
Though the county superintendent visits and judges the 
work done by the teachers, yet the board of directors de- 
cide whether a teacher is "capable" or not, and while 
they often take the advice of the superintendent they 
need not do so as long as the teacher holds a legal certifi- 
cate or license. They decide from year to year whether 
a teacher's services are to continue or not. And they 
decide upon the amount of his compensation. 

Section 10^ provided for "manual labor," and it au- 
thorized the directors "to decide whether such connec- 
tion of manual labor with branches of study in their re- 
spective districts shall take place or not," and it pro- 
vided that they should have power to purchase material 
and employ artisans for the instruction of the pupils in 
the useful branches of the mechanic arts and, where 
practicable, in the agricultural pursuits." All these du- 
ties still belong to the district directors. The law of 1834 
also required them to visit the schools and report to the 
inspectors of the district in full as to salaries, teachers, 
buildings, length of term, studies pursued, etc., but this 
now devolves upon the county superintendent of schools, 
as the inspector's office has been dropped. Still popular 
sentiment often requires the directors to visit the schools, 
at least of their immediate neighborhood. 



^Law of 1834. 



46 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

Criticism. — In this as in all kinds of government, the 
most important object to keep in mind is that the best 
officers shall be selected ; men are more important than 
the form of government. 

One good director often largely directs the whole board 
for the great improvement of the schools of the town- 
ship, while one otherwise inclined may demoralize the 
several schools of a district. 

It will also be seen that the burden of responsibility 
rests upon the school directors. Yet the director is re- 
sponsible to no one except those who elect him. But 
popular sentiment, if properly informed and fair, is one 
of the very best guarantees of right and justice. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 47 



CHAPTER II. 

County Government. — The law^ of 1834 gave the 
county school government into the hands of two inspec- 
tors for each school district appointed by the court of 
Quarter Sessions to serve one year. 

Duties of Inspectors. — The inspectors were required to 
visit the schools in their respective districts at least once 
in three months and oftener if they thought necessary, 
"to inquire into the moral character, learning and ability 
of the several teachers employed therein." They were 
required to examine teachers or those wishing to teach 
and issue certificates, good for one year, to those qualified 
and of good moral character. No one without such cer- 
tificate could obtain compensation from the county treas- 
urer or the treasurer of the commonwealth for his or her 
services. The certificate was to name the branches in 
which the teacher was found competent. 

While the inspectors were appointed for the various 
districts,'' yet they were, in a measure, county officers, 
inasmuch as they were privileged to meet as a body from 
the different districts of a division and transact business 
and establish rules for examinations and certificates, 
which would be binding on all the inspectors of the divi- 
sion or county.^ They (or any one of them) were privi- 
leged to visit all the schools of the division or county and 
examine the same. No teacher was to be given a certifi- 
cate unless he or she was found to be qualified to teach 
reading, writing and arithmetic. 

^Sec. 12, P. L., Apr., 1834. 

'Sec. 14. ■ 

"Sec. IS, P. L. 



48 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

Report to the Secretary of the Commonwealth^ — The 
inspectors were to examine minutely and report to the 
superintendent of schools, then the Secretary of the Com- 
monwealth, the condition of the schools, both as respects 
the progress of the scholars in learning and the good or- 
der of the schools. The report was *'to include the char- 
acter of the teachers; the number of scholars admitted 
during the year in the several schools under their in- 
spection; the branches of study taught in each school; 
the number of months in the year during which each 
school had been kept open; the cost of school houses, 
either for building, renting or repairing, and all other 
costs that might have been incurred in maintaining the 
several schools in their respective districts, and they 
must also cause the same to be published in the school 
division at the expense of the respective city or county. 

County Superintendent^. — The law of 1854 created the 
office of county superintendent of schools, who performed 
such duties as were formerly done by the various inspec- 
tors of the county. 

By notice from the county superintendent' a conven- 
tion of all the school directors of a school division is held 
every three years, at which a county superintendent is 
elected for the term of three years. This convention 
must be on the first Tuesday in May, at the seat of jus- 
tice in the proper county. The county superintendent, as 
the act specifies, is to be a person of literary and scien- 
tific acquirements of skill and experience in the art of 
teaching." The salary is partly fixed by law, and partly 
by the directors. The maximum and minimum limits are 
fixed by law and the directors decide upon the exact 
amount. 



^Sec. 16, P. L. 

^Act May 8, 1854, Sec. 37, P- L-, page 625. 

'Act May 8, 1854, P. L., page 625, also page 627. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 49 

The county superintendent must hold a commission 
from the State Superintendent of Schools. This com- 
mission may be withheld for cause. Objections to 
the county superintendent's receiving a commission, 
grounded on disqualifications of the person selected, must 
be, according to the school laws and decisions,^ "want of 
residence, want of moral character, want of physical 
ability to discharge the duties of the office, want of learn- 
ing, and want of professional skill." 

Duties of County Superintendents. — It is the duty of 
the County Superintendent to visit, as often as possible, 
the several schools of his county, and to note the course 
and method of instruction, and branches taught, and to 
give such directions in the art of teaching and the 
method thereof, in each school, as to him shall be deemed 
expedient and necessary, so that each school shall be 
equal to the grade for which it was established, and that 
there may be, as far as practicable, uniformity in the 
courses of study in schools of the several grades re- 
spectively.^ It is the duty of the County Superintend- 
ent to report to the State Superintendent any failure on 
the part of directors to secure competent teachers and 
otherwise conform to the law, and in such case the State 
appropriation is to be withheld from such district.^ This 
seems always to be sufficient penalty to compel any 
school board to see that the provisions of the law are 
strictly carried out in the management of the schools 
under its charge. Throughout the whole system this is 
the penalty inflicted upon a district failing to fulfil the 
requirements of the school law. 

To Examine Teachers. — The County Superintendent 
must examine all applicants before the board of directors 

'"School Laws and Decisions," page 228. 
'Act of May 8, 1854, page 625. See 37-38. 
■Act May 8, 1854. 



50 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

in their respective districts if they so desire, and give 
certificates to those found qualified; a certificate setting 
forth the branches he or she is quaHfied to teach. Thus 
it will be seen that the ofiice is a very responsible one, 
and much depends upon the faithfulness of the county 
superintendent.^ 

Must Send Annual Report to the State Superintendent. 
— The County Superintendent is required to forward, an- 
nually, on or before the first Monday in June, to the Su- 
perintendent of Common Schools (now the State Su- 
perintendent of Public Instruction) reports of the sev- 
eral districts of their respective counties, as sent by the 
boards of directors, if found correct; and they must also 
'^themselves make an extended report of the condition of 
the schools under their charge, suggesting such improve- 
ments in the school system as they may deem useful, and 
giving such other information in regard to the practical 
operation of common schools, and the laws relating 
thereto as may be deemed of public interest."^ 

To Call Teachers^ Institutes. — The County Superin- 
tendent must convene the teachers of his county wher- 
ever most suitable, and they must organize themselves 
into a teachers' institute, "to be devoted to the improve- 
ment of teachers in the science and art of education," to 
continue in session five days, including half a day in go- 
ing to and half a day in returning from the same. The 
County Superintendent is to preside over the meeting.' 
He must keep an account of the teachers present and 
the number of days each attended, "upon the presenta- 
tion of a certificate, at the close of the session of each 
annual institute, setting forth these facts, and signed by 
the county superintendent, to the treasurer of the proper 



^Act May 8, 1854, Sec. 41, page 626. 

^ "School Laws and Decisions," pages 243-4. 

'Act April 9, 1867, Sec. 2, P. L., page 52. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 51 

county, he is hereby authorized and required to pay im- 
mediately, out of any money not otherwise appropriated 
to the county superintendent, one dollar for every three 
days spent by the teachers of the county in attendance 
at the institute for that year, or so much of it as may be 
needed; such money to be expended by the county super- 
intendent in procuring the services of lecturers and in- 
structors for the institute and in providing the necessary 
apparatus."" This sum is limited to two hundred dollars; 
if it should appear from the vouchers presented by the 
county superintendent to the county auditors, that this 
sum has been actually expended for the purposes speci- 
fied. 

The teachers^ are paid for attending the institutes a 
sum based upon the daily attendance, which shall be not 
less than the daily wages for actual teaching.^ 

The school law of 1854 created the office of County 
Superintendent, most of the act relating to the same. 
Like all important changes this met with much opposi- 
tion. The School Journal^, one of recognized influence 
and now issued by the Department of Pubhc Instruction, 
in April, 1853, urged the passage of an act then before 
the Legislature which provided for a "county visitor" 
and two "county examiners." This bill never became a 
law, though many of its provisions are found in the 
school law of 1854. 

The friends of education, however, revised the bill 
the next year, and it became a law, though it met with 
much opposition. J. P. Wickersham, one who was much 
interested in the educational affairs of those times, says^ : 

^ "School Laws and Decisions," pages 245-6, Sec. 254. 
^"School Laws and Decisions," pages 245-6, Sec. 254. 
'"School Laws and Decisions," pages 347-8. 
* "Pennsylvania School Journal," Vol. I, page 386. 
°J. P. Wickersham's "History of Education in Pennsylvania," 
page 503. 



52 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

"The administration was earnestly in favor of school re- 
form." The discarded biir was kept on the desk of the 
chief clerk under the hammer of the criticism of the offi- 
cers of the department and of outside friends of education 
all the long summer and fall, and by the opening of the 
session of the Legislature in January, 1854, it was so 
changed and perfected as to be in shape to be pressed for 
a passage. The most marked improvement in it was the 
substitution of the office of County Superintendent for 
the clumsy arrangement of teachers' examiners and 
school visitors. Both the Superintendent and the Gov- 
ernor gave the bill much thought, but for the final draft 
as presented to the Legislature the principal credit is un- 
doubtedly due to Chief Clerk Diffenbach. Dr. Jonas R. 
McCHntock of Allegheny county, in the Senate, and Rob- 
ert E. Monaghan of Chester county, in the House, at 
the heads of the respective committees of those bodies, 
both strongly urged the passage of the bill. In the Sen- 
ate the bill passed by a majority of one, the vote being 
16 to 15. Five Senators subsequently filed a formal pro- 
test against its passage, alleging as a reason the opposi- 
tion of their constituents to the County Superintendency.'' 
In the House, Mr. Monaghan succeeded, with a few 
changes of details, in having the bill passed finally, April 
26, by a vote of 53 to 36. Says Dr. Wickersham : "The 
school law of 1854 was an administration, but not a 
party measure. Some of its most earnest friends in the 
Legislature were anti-administration members. And 
some of its bitterest enemies were the political friends of 
the administration." The Governor approved the bill 
May 8th, fully aware, from the circumstances of its 
passage through the Legislature and the unfavorable 
comment of the press of the State, that a large majority 



^Bill of 1853- 

^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickers- 
ham, page 504. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 53 

of the people were opposed to it, but determined, like 
Governor Wolfe on a similar occasion, to risk his own 
future and the future of his administration on a measure 
which he clearly foresaw was fraught with great public 
good, and destined to mark an era in the progress of 
education in the Commonwealth/ 

Some of the newly elected County Superintendents 
were teachers too old to teach, clergymen or laymen who 
knew little about teaching, and several farmers; but, 
says Dr. Wickersham, "There were also among the Su- 
perintendents elected, the names of some of the ablest, 
most skillful, and most energetic educators Pennsylvania 
has ever had, and to these it is owing that the office was 
not wrecked at the very start. The marked success 
achieved in certain counties proved that, where failures 
occurred, it was the officers and not the office that was in 
fault, and there can be no doubt that such examples 
saved the system from certain disaster."^ 

Opposition' soon showed itself strongly against the 
new method of county administration. The anti-free 
school element — those teachers who were afraid of the 
ordeal of examinations or those who failed to pass and 
were thus thrown out of employment — all arrayed them- 
selves against the County Superintendents. At the same 
time a change in administration took place, and Bigler, 
Black and Diffenbach were succeeded by Pollock, Cur- 
tin and Hickok, but as Ritner manfully accepted Wolf's 
policy in favor of free schools and made it his own, so 
Pollock, having in view a broad public, rather than a 
narrow party end, took up Bigler's fight on the County 

^"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickers- 
ham, page 505. 

''"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickers- 
ham, page 510. 

^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
page 512. 



54 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

Superintendency and determined that the new office 
should have at least a fair trial."^ The law has had a fair 
trial, and while there are doubtless exceptions the vast 
majority of County Superintendents, by their adhering to 
strong efforts for improvements of schools, has more 
than justified the change from inspectors to County Su- 
perintendents. 

There may be reasons why the County Superintendents 
should be appointed by the State Superintendent or oth- 
erwise, as had been suggested, but it is plain that the 
greatest success in a county can be achieved only when 
the Superintendent and directors act in harmony, and the 
surest way to reach this end is to select a method which 
will compel harmony, and if the directors elect a County 
Superintendent they will defend him, and he will be 
anxious to serve them aright, for he owes his office to 
their support. 



^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
pages 514-15- 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 55 



CHAPTER III. 



STATE GOVERNMENT. 



The Act of May, 1834, made the Secretary of the 
Commonwealth the State Superintendent of all the 
schools. The Act says^: "The Secretary of the Com- 
monwealth shall be Superintendent of all the public 
schools established by virtue of this act, and he shall per- 
form the following duties : 

"I. Prepare and submit an annual report to the Legis- 
lature, containing a statement of the condition of the 
common schools, estimates and accounts of expenditures 
of the school m.oneys, plans for the improvement of the 
common school system, and all such matters, relating to 
his office of superintendent and to the concerns of the 
common schools, as he shall deem expedient to com- 
municate. 

"H. He shall prepare suitable blank forms, with 
necessary instructions for making district reports, and 
for conducting the necessary proceedings under his juris- 
diction, and he shall cause the same, together with all 
such information as he shall deem necessary for the fur- 
ther improvement of the schools, to be transmitted to 
the several Boards of Directors. 

"III. He shall sign all orders on the State Treasury 
for the payment of moneys into the county school funds, 
but no such order shall be drawn until the county com- 
missioners shall have furnished him with a certificate, 
which they are hereby required to do, of the amount of 

^Act April, 1834, Sec. 17. 



56 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

the school tax required by this act, having been assessed 
according to the provisions thereof. 

"IV. If any controversy shall arise in relation to the 
distribution of the public money, or between the inspec- 
tors and directors concerning the duties of their office, an 
appeal to the Superintendent shall be made, who is 
hereby authorized to settle and adjust all such disputes, 
without cost to the parties, and all money reasonably ex- 
pended by him in this and other matters appertaining to 
the execution of his duty as Superintendent, shall upon 
due proof, be allowed to him by the Auditor General, 
and paid out of the State Treasury."^ 

Thus it will be seen that the duties of the State Super- 
intendent were added to those of the Secretary of the 
Commonwealth. Why the duties of such an important 
office should be crowded into those of another State 
office does not seem to have been answered and no reason 
has ever been given. However, the system was new, and 
it is not likely that the framers of the act of 1834, which 
founded the "General System of Education," reaHzed the 
importance of the office or its responsibilities. 

Already, in 1852, Thomas H. Burrowes, editor of the 
School Journal, complained of the work of the State 
Superintendent, ex officio. He asks, "How is it that 
gentlemen so wise and so politic in all else almost uni- 
formly reverse the maxims of common sense and of pol- 
icy in their capacity of superintendent?" Continuing/ 
he says : "Before the seal of his commission is well dry, 
the new Superintendent, ex officio, inspired with the full- 
ness of his knowledge and experience (for he can have 
neither from any other source), feels bound to make a 
splurge (there is no other fit name for the thing) in his 
official capacity. Accordingly, the very earliest occasion 

^Sec. 17, Act of April i, 1834, Laws of General Assembly, 
1833-34- 
''The School Journal, vol. i, page 3. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 57 

is seized for telling the Legislature and the people "all 
how and about it" in a report. New defects in the system 
are detected, new remedies devised, and scarcely any- 
thing which the experience of his predecessors recom- 
mended is endorsed.'"^ To be sure, the secretaries of 
the commonwealth were politicians, nevertheless this in 
itself would give him prestige by which he could influ- 
ence the Legislature for the benefit of the school system, 
still it would appear that the work of the office of State 
Superintendent would be a secondary matter to an office 
of such political importance. And when, by the Act of 
April 18, 1857, the school was separated from the State 
Department, this became apparent. J. P. Wickersham 
says : "The influential hand of the Secretary of the 
Commonwealth was withdrawn from the management of 
school affairs and no adequate provision was made to 
supply the loss; and, what was of even more conse- 
quence, the Governors of the State henceforth scarcely 
considered their administrations responsible for the con- 
duct of school affairs, much less, took it upon them- 
selves to lead in the march of improvement.'"^ 

Still a great improvement was made in that the de- 
partment was now independent, with no interest to dis- 
tract or divide attention, and the head of the department 
was able to direct all his energies to the improvement of 
the system. 

The title, "Superintendent of Common Schools," was 
changed, by the Constitution of 1873, to "Superintendent 
of Public Instruction."^ He is appointed by the Gov- 
ernor with the advice and consent of two-thirds of all 
the members of the Senate. His term of office, by the 
constitution of 1873, is four years. 

'^The School Journal, vol. i, page 3. 

* "History of Education in Pennsylvania," page 528. 

'Sec. 8, Art. IV, Constitution of 1873. 



58 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

Duties of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. — 
The duties of the Superintendent of PubHc Instruction 
are the same as those formerly devolving on the Super- 
intendent of Common Schools.^ Viz. : 

1. Settle controversies between directors.' 

2. To give advice and explanations concerning school 

affairs.* 

3. To sign orders for state appropriations.* 

4. To prepare and distribute blank forms, reports, 

etc., concerning school matters.* 

5. To issue permanent certificates.^ 

6. To issue State Teachers' permanent certificates to 

college graduates,** 

7. Commission County Superintendents. '^ 

8. Appoint one-half of the trustees of the State 

Normal Schools." 

9. Make annual reports.^ 

10. Provide a seal.^ 

11. Appoint one or more deputies.'' 

12. Remove County Superintendents for cause." 

13. Fill vacancies of County Superintendents." 

14. Prescribe forms for normal schools." 



^Act of April 18, 1857, Sec. 3, P. L., page 263. 

"Act May 8, 1854, Sec. 3, P. L., page 263. 

*Act May 8, 1854, Sec. 46, P. L., page 628, also Act July 15, 
1897, P. L., No. 215, page 271. 

'Act April 9, 1897, Sec. 12, P. L., page 55, Act June 22, 1883, 
Sec. I, P. L., page 156. 

'Act May 10, 1893, Sec. i, P. L., 39. 

'Act April 9, 1867, Sec. 13, P. L., page 56. 

'Act April 12, 1875, Sec. 3, P- L-, page 43- 

"Act May 8, 1854, Sec. 46, P. L., page 628. 

"Act April 26, 1893, Sec. 2, P. L., page 24. 

"^Act May 8, 1854, Sec. 44, P. L., page 627. 

"Act May 10, 1857, Sec. 13, P. L., page 587. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 59 

15. Approve rules and by-laws of boards of Normal 

School Trustees/ 

16. Issue certificates of competency to candidates for 

County Superintendencies.^ 

Thus it will be seen how important an office the Su- 
perintendent of Public Instruction is. We sometimes 
hear reports of the interference of politics in school af- 
fairs also influencing the appointment of Superintend- 
ents of Pubhc Instruction, but as long as man is imper- 
fect some influence of this kind will always be felt. 

By being interested in the progress of the system, the 
Superintendent of Public Instruction can advise and urge 
improvements with much chance of success. In this 
way, when, in 1866, Supt. Wickersham found twenty- 
three districts without public schools, he secured the 
enactment of laws authorizing the payment of part of 
the forfeited State appropriation if they should estab- 
lish schools, and by writing to prominent citizens, super- 
intendents, judges of courts, etc., and by personal visi- 
tation to these districts, he was able, in 1875 to report 
"that the system was in operation in every district in the 
commonwealth," adding "For the first time in our his- 
tory, the door of a public school house stands open to 
receive every child of proper age within the limits of the 
State.'" The advice of the Superintendent is still the 
main spring for the advance of the schools of the State 
by legisltion and by other means. 

^Act April 12, 187s, Sec. 5, P. L., page 43. 

^Act April 9, 1867, Sec. 13, P. L., page 56. 

* "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickers- 
ham, pages 562-64. 



6o THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 



CHAPTER IV. 



TEACHERS INSTITUTES. 



When the school system was first established, one of 
the great hindrances to its successful development and 
efficiency was the lack of trained teachers. At first 
teachers' certificates depended upon their knowledge of 
the several branches of study to be taught in the various 
schools ; this disregarded the importance of theory and 
practice. Teachers lacked training. It was plain that a 
teacher must not only know his subject, but he must 
also know how to impart his knowledge to others. One 
way of supplying this want of training was by teachers' 
institutes. In 1866 these had been organized in twenty- 
three counties, and other counties quickly followed, so 
that the number rapidly increased.^ The school law of 
1867 made teachers' institutes obligatory in all the coun- 
ties of the State.^ This was a great boon to institutes, 
and the amount of good accomplished by them can hardly 
be overestimated. 

Almost complete control of these institutes was placed 
in the hands of the County Superintendent of Schools. 
All instructors, lecturers and entertainers were selected 
and hired by him, and he was held responsible for the 
success of the institutes. There was no way of shifting 
responsibility, and the County Superintendent naturally 
labored diligently for the reputation of his institutes. 
This custom still prevails in Pennsylvania, and no at- 

^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," page 496. 
^Act of April 9, 1867, Sec. 2, P. L., page 52. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 6i 

tempt has ever been made to lessen his authority in the 
matter. No little cause of the great success of the county 
teachers' institutes is due to this local control. J. P. 
Wickersham, who had served as a State normal school 
principal and Superintendent of Public Instruction, says 
of them : "It is safe to say that the Teachers' Institutes 
of Pennsylvania, under the law, and in the spirit with 
which it was carried into effect, have been unequaled in 
attendance, in the character of the instruction given, and 
in the influence for good, by those of any other State.'"^ 

When we know the kind of man who made the above 
statement its weight is redoubled. 

We assign the main reason for this to the fact that 
they are almost entirely under control of the County 
Superintendent. First, because he is in no way hin- 
dered in his efforts to secure instructors who will suit 
his audiences, and he is a much better judge of their 
tastes and needs than any State officer. This is an ad- 
vantage over those who have instructors sent by State 
authorities and others. 

Secondly, he, as the County Superintendent, is re- 
sponsible for the success of the institute. He cannot 
shift the responsibility. The teachers, directors and the 
public look to him as the cause of its success or failure, 
hence he bends his energies and directs his influence, 
which is always of great importance, toward its success. 
If any one else has the management of it he prefers to 
let things go as they may. 

Teachers are paid for attending institutes the same 
wages per day as they would receive if they were teach- 
ing. But each teacher must be present at institute or 
forfeit the remuneration. 

The time for holding institute is set by the County 

^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
page 559- 



62 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

Superintendent, and generally the institute is convened 
several months after the school term has opened. Too 
often the teachers are tired and unlikely to be inter- 
ested or as attentive as if it had been held during vaca- 
tion. Some superintendents, however, hold their insti- 
tutes before the term begins, and, one, at least. Prof. 
Longstreet, of Tioga county, even seats his teachers, as 
an instructor would his class, so that it is understood 
that they are there for work. These are, beyond doubt, 
by far the most profitable. After a rest from work, and 
before the new term begins, the teachers enjoy instruc- 
tion, and to learn new and better methods or improve- 
ments on old ones is to them a source of pleasure. 

Unfortunately this is not true of institutes in the mid- 
dle of a term. At that time the desire is for entertain- 
ment and rest. A change from the school room is too 
tempting, and too many teachers look for a good time. 
There is a mixing of the sexes, and other attractions take 
the minds of the teachers away from that of instruction. 
Sometimes conduct which would not be tolerated on the 
part of their students is indulged in by the teachers them- 
selves. This is not true of all or even of a majority, but 
the good results of an institute in the middle of a term 
are not to be compared to those of institutes held during 
vacation. 

STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS. 

One great need felt by educators from the beginning 
was competent teachers. This became more apparent 
when county superintendents had trouble in finding appli- 
cants who could pass satisfactory examinations. Dr. 
Wickersham explains the great influence that this had 
upon legislation. He says that the County Superintend- 
ents, who had been foremost in refusing to certificate 
the old, incompetent teachers, were forced to exert them- 
selves to provide new and better qualified ones. Hence, 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 63 

temporary 'teachers' schools, or normal institutes, as 
they were called, were established in a number of coun- 
ties. The one at Millersville, Pa., being the first, had 
much to do with the shaping of the normal school policy 
of the State. It became the first state normal of the com- 
monwealth. 

The Act of May, 1857,^ divided the State into twelve 
State normal school districts, and the Act of May, 1874,' 
divided the eighth into two separate districts, and thus 
there were constituted the thirteen districts which still 
exist. 

The bill providing for the establishment of normal 
schools seems to have met with no opposition, for it 
called for no expenditure of money." Before this, large 
sums had been appropriated to private academies and 
colleges, sectarian and others, and all educators saw that 
this policy was not the kind to put Pennsylvania in the 
fore front in educational progress. 

Millersville State normal school was organized as the 
first normal in 1859. In 1861 the one at Edinboro was 
recognized and in 1862 the one at Mansfield. Others 
followed until now every one of the thirteen districts 
has its own State normal school. The last one was the 
one in East Stroudsburg, of the fourth district, in 1893. 

The pecuniary affairs of the normal schools are con- 
trolled by a board of trustees* consisting of eighteen 
members, nine elected by the stockholders and nine ap- 
pointed by the Superintendent of Public Instruction.^ 
The latter are generally^ of a list recommended by the 



^Act of May 20, 1857, Sec. i, P. L. 581. 
'Act of May 8, 1874, Sec. i, P. L. 120. 

" "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
page 522. 
*Act of May 20, 1887, Sec. 3, P. L. 582. 
"Act April 12, 1875, Sec. i, P. L. 43. 



64 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

stockholders. No State normal school can have a greater 
indebtedness than one-third of the value of its property/ 
In case the real estate should be exposed for sale, the 
Governor, Superintendent of Public Instruction and At- 
torney-general may put in a bid, covering the liens only, 
to be taken in behalf of the Commonwealth.^ 

The dividing of appropriations from the State is in the 
hands of the Governor, Superintendent of Public In- 
struction and Attorney-general, in justice to the State 
and the several Normal Schools, the conditions of which 
must be fixed by law."" 

In the month of October the trustees must report the 
pecuniary conditions of the several normal schools to the 
Superintendent of Public Instruction,* and the normal 
schools must be open to the visitation of the Superin- 
tendent of Public Instruction and the County Superin- 
tendents of all the counties in the various normal school 
districts.^ 

The Superintendent, whenever he deems it necessary, 
or upon the request of three principals of normal schools, 
calls a meeting of all the principals of normal schools to 
decide upon a course of study or any changes in the 
same, and to arrange other matters under their jurisdic- 
tion.* The text books are selected by the professors 
with the approval of the trustees." 

EXAMINATIONS. 

The examinations of classes at the end of the year, 
which classes must be recommended by the school, are 

^Act April 12, 1875, Sec. 10, P. L. 44. 
'Act of April 12, 1875, Sec. 8, P. L. 44. 
^Act June 4, 1879, Sec. i, page 89. 

"Act April 12, 1876, Sec. 7, P. L. 43. 
Sec. 15, P. L. 475. 
*Act May 20, 1857, Sec. 5, P. L. 582, also Act April 11, 1862, 
'Act May 20, i8s7, Sec. 6, P. L. 583. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 65 

conducted by a State board of examiners, consisting of 
the Superintendent of Public Instruction or his deputy, 
who is president of the board, two principals of normal 
schools, one of which is the principal of the school at 
which the examination takes place, and from two to six 
county, city, borough or township superintendents ap- 
pointed by the Superintendent of Public Instruction,* 
the expenses of whom are paid by the State.^ 

To graduate or receive a State certificate, the candi- 
date must receive four out of five votes of the members 
of the board of examiners.® 

For each student signing a written declaration to teach 
in the common schools of the State, receiving instruction 
in the art and science of teaching, and who is over sev- 
enteen years of age, the State appropriates fifty cents per 
week toward the tuition of such student. Each student 
filling the above conditions, who was disabled in the mil- 
itary or naval service of the United States, or of Penn- 
sylvania, or whose father lost his life in said service, and 
who is over seventeen and not more than twenty-two 
years of age, may receive the sum of one dollar per 
week from the State. A later law now gives students 
at a normal school preparing for teaching an amount 
equal to his tuition. 

To the graduates who bind themselves by a written 
agreement to teach two full years in the common schools 
of the State the State grants the sum of fifty dollars 
upon graduating.* 

Certificates are granted to graduates naming the 
branches as prescribed by the board of principals, and 
any other studies in which the student or students may 

^Act April 23, 1895, Sec. i, P. L. 41. 
'Act April 23, 1895, Sec. 2, P. L. 41. 
'Act April 12, 187s, Sec. 9, P. L. 44. 
*Act of 1869, Sec. 14, P. L. 38. 



66 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

be found proficient. Actual teachers in good standing in 
the public schools who have taught three full years may 
be examined with the candidates of normal schools, and 
if found equally proficient may be given a certificate. 
Upon examination, students may have other branches 
added to their certificates.^ 

No regular graduate can receive a certificate of com- 
petence in the practice of teaching until after the ex- 
piration of two full years of teaching after graduation, 
when, by the production of a certificate of good moral 
character and successful work as a teacher from the 
board or boards of directors, countersigned by the 
County Superintendent under whom he taught, he or she 
may receive a certificate of competence in the practice of 
teaching.^ 

No temporary or provisional certificate can be granted 
by and State board of examiners.^ 

^Act May 20, 1857, Sec. 9, P. L. 585. 
^Act May 20, 1857, Sec. 10, P. L. 586. 
'Act May 20, 1857, Sec. i, P. L. 586. 



PART III. 



CHAPTER I. 

SELECTION OF TEACHERS. 
THE SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 

The township government of schools has its advan- 
tages and its disadvantages. All the directors cannot be 
from among the patrons of one school, for public opin- 
ion, not the law, forbids it. Hence the teacher is not 
subject to his own patrons alone. It is an advantage for 
directors of various parts of a township to compare 
notes and lay down a general plan. This tends to make 
the text books uniform as well as the course of study. 
The law provides that text books and apparatus shall 
be selected by a joint meeting of directors and teachers. 
This provision is not often carried out, though the ad- 
vice of teachers is often asked by those directors who be- 
lieve that the teachers who use the apparatus, etc., should 
assist in selecting it. 

agents' INFLUENCE ON TEXT BOOKS. 

Sometimes it happens that, in fact almost always, 
agents depend upon directors' votes rather than the merit 
of their goods, and the charge of bribery is often made. 
Too often an increase in the State appropriation only 
loads the school with useless charts, etc., which might 
have been used to increase the teacher's salary, or to pur- 
chase useful apparatus for schools. 

One example is known of an agent soliciting the in- 
fluence of a director, and ofifering $25 for the same, 
which, however, was refused; but another director was 
followed in and out of the harvest field for days, until 

69 



70 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

his vote and influence finally won for the agent the sale 
of a chart, comparatively useless, for a whole township of 
schools. It is only fair, however, to say that the storm 
of public denunciation which followed soon elected a 
new board, and different methods were pursued. Still, 
if a board of directors desires or is so minded, it can 
ignore all demands of teachers who fear for reappoint- 
ment if they find fault. Text books and stationery in 
the public schools are free. 

SELECTION OF TEACHERS. 

In the selecting of teachers, merit or ability is not 
always the deciding influence. Well do we recall an ex- 
perience with a borough school board when an applicant 
for principal was told by one of the most conscientious 
members that he had better qualifications, no doubt, but 
that another lived there and paid his tax there, and his 
father-in-law was a member of the board, so that he 
would have to support him. He was selected. Political 
influence is often felt, while on the other hand one or 
two members of a board who keep firmly in their minds 
their duty, often sway the whole board to the right, even 
against their own prejudices. We have seen noble in- 
stances of this kind. Here again it will be seen that the 
people and their officers have more influence for good or 
ill than the law. The law evidently intended that merit 
and qualification should decide in the selection of teach- 
ers. As long as man is human he will be subject to 
influences of various kinds entirely foreign to the intent 
of the law. The district system does not do away with 
this evil. 

EVILS OF OTHER STATES. 

In other states with district government it often is seen 
and frequently in a worse form. In a neighboring State 
a disobedient boy was suspended by his teacher. At a 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 71 

subsequent meeting of the trustees the president of the 
board asked the teacher if he intended to accept the 
boy's terms, which were that the teacher apologize for 
sending the boy home and allow the boy to return to 
school again. The boy's father had much influence in 
the community, and the teacher appealed to the County 
Superintendent, who sustained him, but he lost his posi- 
tion the next term. 

Another example is the case of a teacher unable to 
pass an examination and obtain a license of a grade re- 
quired by law for the position he occupied. He was 
kept in his position by church influence over a year, 
violating the law. His successor being of a different de- 
nomination was so hampered by him that he was unable 
to remain over one term. His successor was carefully 
selected that his religious denomination might suit the 
party in power. Strange to say, the party in power did 
not represent the majority of the patrons, but after years 
of fighting the majority party became tired of the con- 
test and took little interest in district elections for school 
teachers. 

TEACHERS BUY POSITIONS. 

It is often rumored that teachers are compelled to pur- 
chase their positions from directors or political leaders. 
Whether this is true and to what extent, it is impossible 
to tell. But any other form would be subject to the same 
evil. We have heard just as many complaints from 
places having district government. Suffice it to say that 
of all kinds of bribery possibly none is so heinous as 
that by which the rising generation is deprived of the 
privileges and opportunities granted it by the State. One 
who is guilty of such an act or in any way connected 
with it is a greater enemy to his country than the man 
who insults his country's flag. To so defraud the help- 
less lacks the "honor of thieves." 



72 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

The selection of teachers depends mainly upon two 
things : first, if he is or will be a successful teacher ; sec- 
ond, his preparation as indicated by his certificate, his 
age, and his experience. The second is comparatively 
an easy matter to decide, although occasionally it is ru- 
mored that the County Superintendent is partial. He 
may be incompetent himself, he may have his own set 
opinion of the correct method, and this may not corre- 
spond with that of the teacher, and no one can make a 
comfortable Procrustean bedstead. No good teacher can 
be an ultra ego of a superintendent. This will be more 
fully discussed under the chapter on the County Super- 
intendent. If the teacher holds a State certificate, this 
with his age and experience is an easy matter to con- 
sider. 

The most important question is, has he been or will he 
be a successful teacher? Who can decide whether he is 
a successful teacher or not? Too often, we fear, a mis- 
take is made. Sometimes a teacher who is pronounced a 
success in one place is considered a failure in another. 
Very much depends on his abiHty to get along well with 
the pupils and patrons. It is not every one who can dis- 
cipline and still hold the respect and love of his pupils 
and patrons. Yet popular sentiment in the district is 
called upon very largely to decide as to a teacher's suc- 
cess. But what about an inexperienced teacher ? If he is 
a normal school graduate he has had some experience in 
teaching classes, possibly in organizing students into 
classes under the supervision of one who has had ex- 
perience in this work. But while this aids it is not a 
guarantee that the teacher will be a success or a failure. 
Some left to themselves will solve the questions as they 
arise with excellent judgment, especially since they real- 
ize that they have no critic teacher to satisfy. They sat- 
isfy their own idea of justice, and it generally suits every 
one else, but it is difficult for some to play the ultra 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 73 

ego of a critic teacher. The most successful teacher 
must necessarily understand that he has a problem to 
solve, and he must solve it correctly. 

Notwithstanding all these objections and notwith- 
standing the fact that looks often deceive, in very many 
cases one can judge by the looks, even if more or less 
intuitively, whether one will succeed or not. The more 
means of judging, the more apt is one to judge aright. 
All conditions must be taken into consideration, but too 
much weight must not be placed on any one of them. 



74 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 



CHAPTER n. 

MANUAL TRAINING. 

LEGISLATIVE SUGGESTIONS. 

The laws of 1834 provided for manual training, call- 
ing it manual labor. Penn's "Frame of Government" said 
that an opportunity should be given the young to learn 
some useful art or skill. These and other suggestions 
probably had back of them the idea of preparing to earn 
a livelihood without thought of its educational value. It 
seems strange that so much has been said about manual 
training and so little done. It has been authorized by 
legislative acts, urged by educational officers and recom- 
mended by educators. The main cause of this is a lack 
of popular demand for it. 

MANUAL TRAINING IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

In the common country school very little has ever been 
done. Few of the teachers know anything about it as a 
branch of study, and patrons cannot see the use of it. 
Some normal schools have taken up the work, however, 
and teachers are being trained for it. 

MANUAL TRAINING IN WEST CHESTER. 

Dr. Phillips of West Chester State Normal School 
says that their students in the last two years of their 
normal course are required to spend three-quarters of 
an hour every other day in the shop. The first year, 
they take substantially the graded course in wood work 
of the Philadelphia Manual Training School. That 
would be joinery, vise work, pattern making and smith- 
ing. The second year they make school apparatus of 
various sorts, especially philosophical apparatus, which 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 75 

they are privileged to take with them to their schools 
when they leave. Working drawings are made by the 
students in all cases, and the work done from these 
drawings. All other students in the school are privi- 
leged to take this work, and many do. In our model 
school, the children, both boys and girls as young as 
eight or nine, take it regularly with much pleasure and 
satisfactory results. The course in wood work is taken 
by the young women in the school just the same as by 
the young men, and their work is practically as good. 
We confine our work at present wholly to wood work and 
the necessary drawings, 

MANUAL TRAINING IN THE KEYSTONE NORMAL SCHOOL. 

In Prof. W. W. Deatrick's statement he claims that 
in the Keystone State Normal School of Kutztown, Pa.,' 
they try to make their manual training educational, with 
special reference to later work of the pupil teachers in 
the construction of apparatus, charts, etc. The depart- 
ment was established by the State normal school, and 
tuition is included in general charges. Materials are 
paid for by the pupils. Instruction is given in the senior 
year only. Average age of pupils about nineteen years. 
In cardboard, sloyd and wood sloyd pupils work from 
blue prints, which each one is required to make. The 
required course in cardboard and wood includes the 
making of geometrical forms, and surfaces and solids 
which may later be used as apparatus. Turning, scroll 
sawing and metal working are optional. Fifteen charts, 
covering a course in color, are required, also two large 
wall color charts. Few large wall charts, astronomical, 
anatomical, physiological or psychological, are required. 
In making these some must be drawn by the method of 
squares, some by pantograph and some by the use of the 
optical lantern. Several charts of geographical projec- 

^Report of Commissioner of Education, 1895- 1896. 



7(> THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

tions are required. Five pieces of apparatus are ex- 
pected from each pupil. Photography is taught to pu- 
pils electing the same. The chart-making appears to be 
the most valuable feature of their work. Clay modeling 
occupies several weeks of the year. The training in the 
construction of apparatus and chart-making has ma- 
terially influenced the public schools. One superintend- 
ent says : 'T can see an improvement in the schools of 
the county with reference to school-room apparatus since 
the introduction of manual training into the normal 
school at Kutztown."'' 

This school introduced manual training in 1890. The 
girls take the work in color and cardboard sloyd. In- 
stead of the other work done by the boys the girls take 
sewing. Since then other Normal schools are doing about 
the same. 

SEWING, ETC. 

Since the new normal course this work is done in the 
middle year. The East Stroudsburg normal school was 
the first to introduce sewing. Very much was accom- 
plished, though the instructress was always at a disad- 
vantage, since it was not a regular part of the work, and 
now it is discontinued. Millersville has also introduced 
sewing in her course. Some normal schools have some 
clay modeling or drawing or map-making, and consider 
that as fulfilling the law, which requires the teaching of 
manual training in all normal schools. Still all are plan- 
ning for this great improvement in the course. Improve- 
ments are made every year in the various Normals. 

PHILADELPHIA MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 

The Manual Training School of Philadelphia, founded 
in September, 1885, is too well known to need an ex- 

"^Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1895-96, page 
1095. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA ^y 

tended description at this time. It started with a class of 
one hundred and thirty students. At the end of three 
years another Hke institution had to be estabUshed to 
accommodate the ever increasing number of appHcants 
for this kind of instruction. 

Superintendent McAhster said: 'The processes of 
manual training afford a better means of cultivating the 
faculties of reason and judgment than many things that 
now find place in the courses of instruction."'' He also 
said that the students who did this work did work in 
mathematics, literature, and history, and in no respect 
inferior to that of schools of a similar grade in which the 
whole time is occupied in classroom work. Well known 
is the reputation of these schools occupying as they do a 
position in the fore front of those of any city in the 
Union, which has taken up the movement in favor of 
manual training. Their reputation is too well known to 
need further discussion at this place. 

MANUAL TRAINING IN WILKESBARRE. 

Wilkesbarre has for some time given considerable at- 
tention to manual training in the public schools. Super- 
intendent A. W. Potter in his report in 1888-89 says 
Wilkesbarre is the only city in northwestern Pennsyl- 
vania in which manual training forms a part of the public 
school system. The boys only take joinery, mainly with 
a small amount of wood work of other kinds. Two half 
days in a week are devoted to this kind of work. In 
1888 sewing was introduced as a form of manual train- 
ing for girls. Friday afternoons from three to four 
are devoted to this work. This city later dropped man- 
ual training from its curriculum. 

MANUAL TRAINING IN OTHER CITIES. 

In 1 899- 1 900 in the public schools manual training 
other than drawing was taught in Bradford, Pa., in 



^Report of Commissioner of Education, 1893-94, page 904. 



78 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

8, 9, 10, II, 12 grades; Conshohoken, Pa., in all grades 
above primary; Norristown, Pa., seventh grade and high 
school ; in Philadelphia, Pa., in .high school ; Pittsburg, 
Pa., in grammar school; West Chester, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 
12 grades. In the same year in Pennsylvania there were 
ten manual training schools with seventy-six male and 
forty-seven female teachers, with 3,404 male and 1,043 
female pupils. The maintenance of these schools cost 
$97,490. At the same time Massachusetts had nine 
schools with one hundred and twenty-four teachers at an 
expense of $48,881, and New York twenty- two schools 
with one hundred and eighty-three teachers at an ex- 
pense of $162,784."^ These three States stand at the head 
of the list of States in the Union in the work of manual 
training. This is not saying much, for outside of a very 
few institutions almost nothing is being done. But why 
is it? Students enjoy the work, educators praise it, and 
the law requires it in some cases and allows and en- 
courages it in all cases. One reason probably is, its re- 
quirements. A separate room, if not a separate building, 
is required, as there must be machinery of a unique type. 
This necessitates extra cost for fuel and apparatus. A 
special instructor is absolutely necessary. This is an- 
other source of cost, and few teachers of manual tram- 
ing wish to teach other subjects or are able to do so. 
Manual training teachers are scarce, and very often man- 
ufacturers take them out of the profession by offering 
higher wages. The main reason probably is that heads 
of institutions are less interested in manual training than 
in anything else. They do the recommending, and it is 
but natural that they should emphasize those branches 
in which they are interested. It is not part of the regular 
classical or scientific course of the leading colleges, and 



^Report of Commissioner of Education, 1899- 1900, pages 2400- 
2441. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 79 

the best trained men therefore lack experience in this line 
of work. 

The mental discipline of manual training is not as 
strongly urged by educators as it should be, and its use- 
fulness to students in after life is little thought of. Even 
in our normal schools it is very much neglected. All 
agree that it should be part of the regular course, all be- 
lieve in its usefulness, all believe in the wisdom of the 
law which requires it. Without giving a reason and 
acknowledging its claims they make no effort to give it 
its just due. In the case of the common country school 
it seems to be virtually impracticable either to furnish 
extra teachers or equipments necessary for its introduc- 
tion and continued management. 



8o THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 



CHAPTER ni. 

COUNTY GOVERNMENT. 

The law of 1834 placed the county government of 
schools in the hands of the commissioners and appointed 
inspectors, but this method soon proved unsatisfactory, 
and the law of 1854 placed the county government of 
education in the hands of a County Superintendent of 
Schools. He is selected by all the directors of the county 
and not by the popular vote. This is an advantage, since 
this method takes the election out of the hands of poli- 
tics, at least more so than if he were elected by popular 
vote. The law prescribed his qualifications, and makes 
the State Superintendent of Public Instruction the judge 
in the matter, thus insuring the schools against unqual- 
ified politicians and the like. 

POLITICS IN COUNTY GOVERNMENT. 

However, too often politics is taken into consideration, 
and a Democratic superintendent is seldom elected in a 
Republican county, or vice versa. Yet there are cases 
where this happens. Northampton County, recognized 
as a Democratic stronghold, has a Republican Superin- 
tendent of Schools, and he was recently reelected unani- 
mously. 

superintendent's duties. 

The duties of the Superintendent are to examine teach- 
ers, grant certificates, visit the schools and hold the teach- 
ers' institutes. 

Concerning his visits to schools we must say that per- 
sonally we know of no County Superintendent who ever 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 8i 

failed to visit all the schools in his division at least once 
in a year. These visits are often too short. If at least 
a day could be spent in each school, it would be a great 
advantage, but, unfortunately, only an hour or two is 
spent, as a general rule, and often a shorter time. A 
visit of a day would afford enough information to guide 
the superintendent in selecting instructors and subjects 
for institutes. Some superintendents make the mistake 
of thinking that they must offer some suggestions or 
criticism, which in fact may injure rather than improve 
the work. Superintendents must be very discreet in their 
suggestions, remembering that all good teachers do not 
work exactly alike, and they should be given a chance 
to show their individuality in their work. 

A word of encouragement and advice and a talk to the 
pupils may, and we are assured by our experience they 
often do, add spirit to the work of teacher and pupil. 
Very often the pupils hail the visit of the County Su- 
perintendent with much delight. There has been a time, 
we are told, that his visits were prepared for by orders 
and threats from the teachers, that the conduct of the 
pupils should be according to the orders laid down, and 
certain recitations prepared, with extra drill on the part 
of the teacher. When such visits were over, pupils in- 
variably heaved a sigh of great relief. We are glad to 
say that we hear of those things now only from those 
who have long since left the school. 

TO EXAMINE TEACHERS AND GRANT CERTIFICATES. 

In Pennsylvania the County Superintendent has the 
sole power of examining teachers for provisional certifi- 
cates and granting the same. Some suggestions have 
been made that the examinations be made uniform 
throughout the State by the certificates being fur- 
nished and questions prepared by the State authorities. 
This might seem to be an improvement, yet we must 



82 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

remember that in such case the wages should Ukewise be 
uniform, and some cities would be held back in their en- 
deavors for progress. No one knows better how much a 
district can afford to pay teachers than the County Su- 
perintendent, and he certainly knows the teachers better 
than the State authorities. Besides, this responsibility 
makes him a person of influence. He knows the schools 
of his district and therefore understands their needs, 
and by means of local and county teachers' institutes he 
can mold popular sentiment to demand the very improve- 
ments he sees they need. 

UNIFORMITY OF EXAMINATIO'NS IN OTHER STATES. 

Concerning the question of uniformity of examina- 
tions Dr. Schaefer, before the State Teachers' Associa- 
tion in 1 901, declared that "uniformity in granting certifi- 
cates secured by uniformity of questions is a dream that 
can never be realized." The experience of other States 
where this has been tried is sufficient proof of its evil 
results. 

One example is given of the high marks made by the 
teachers of a certain part of a certain State, and on ex- 
amination into the cause it was found that a politician of 
the place always visited the capitol just before the ex- 
aminations, and on his return sold copies of the questions 
at fifty dollars a set. For such amounts men can be 
found who would risk a great deal. "A man comes in 
and examines the inked forms and is kicked out of the 
printing office, but many would risk the kicking for a 
few such simis of money." Besides, employees in the 
office, porters, devils, etc., all have some chance of 
making large sums. An example is given by Dr. Schaef- 
fer of a porter in the State printing office of a neighbor- 
ing State, who was discharged for selling examination 
questions, and he immediately purchased several farms, 
of course not with money honestly earned. Besides, the 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 83 

marking to be uniform must all be done by one person, 
and even then the same person at different times marks 
differently, as any one of much experience in this kind 
of work must know."" 

QUALITY OF OUR COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. 

The main safeguard against partiality and bribery is 
to elect good, honest, well-qualified County Superintend- 
ents. This is partly assured by the fact that the State 
Superintendent may refuse to commission one who is not 
fitted for the position, and this has been done. How- 
ever, there are some instances of unjust superintendents 
that have come even to our notice. A young girl thir- 
teen years of age was granted a certificate one year 
and proved a very successful teacher, but objections hav- 
ing been raised, she was rejected next year on account of 
age. Another County Superintendent, canvassing for a 
reelection, called several times to see a teacher who was 
known to have influence with his school board. He was 
told that, if he would speak to all the directors of the 
district, he would be recommended for a permanent cer- 
tificate the following year. To obtain one a teacher must 
be so recommended. Another example is that of a 
County Superintendent who, to hold the influence of his 
teachers, filled his county full of professional certificates, 
many of which had to be annulled by his successor. Gen- 
erally, however, the County Superintendents, being se- 
lected by a select and intelligent body, are of a high type. 
We have seen unworthy candidates for teachers rejected 
repeatedly, though influence had been brought to bear in 
their behalf. 

Ex-Supt. Higbee claimed: "That in scholarship, pro- 
fessional skill and force of character, the average city 



*Supt. H. C. Schaeffer's address before State Teachers' As- 
sociation, 1901. 



84 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

and County Superintendent, in Pennsylvania, was the 
peer of the average State Superintendent."^ 

These are notable examples of the Superintendents of 
Pennsylvania who, in the face of public opinion, have 
raised the standard, cutting off the incompetent, limiting 
the number of applicants for schools, doing the right re- 
gardless of consequences, risking the bread and butter of 
their own children in defense of the children of the State, 
braving the ire of narrow-minded directors, and political 
bosses in township, borough or ward, and it is a matter 
of much thankfulness that we have such men to control 
the issue of teachers' certificates.^ 

PENALTIES INFLICTED BY COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. 

Examples are known where the applicants were sifted 
so close that there was fear that there would not be 
enough to fill the schools. One example is that of an old 
gentleman who, though he offered to use his own horse 
to drive the County Superintendent from one examina- 
tion to another, yet was refused a certificate because of 
incompetence. Another cheated in examination and was 
refused a certificate for five years; another changed a 
mark, and received the same sentence. There are al- 
ways many aspirants for the office, and these by watching 
the acts of the Superintendent keep him in constant fear 
of being detected and exposed if any unjust or unlawful 
act is performed, and he knows that this may happen, 
and if proven, will cost him his office, for the Super- 
intendent of Public Instruction is bound by oath to re- 
move any such Superintendent. Thus it will be seen 
how the County Superintendent who takes pride in his 
work may, by the powers at his disposal, raise the stand- 



^Proceedings of Pennsylvania State Teachers' Association for 
1900, pages 26-27. 

^Proceedings of Pennsylvania State Teachers' Association for 
1900, page 27. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 85 

ard of teaching in his county, to the great benefit of the 
rising generation. 

Moreover, by giving into the hands of the County Su- 
perintendent the power of granting certificates, it is made 
possible for him to use his knowledge of the teachers' 
practical ability to impart knowledge and discipline a 
school. 

So satisfactory is the work of county supervision that 
almost no one would exchange it for any other method. 
With his knowledge of popular sentiment in each dis- 
trict, his knowledge of the patrons, the directors and the 
teachers of the various districts, the County Superintend- 
ent is able to direct far more efficiently than any other per- 
son could do. He can thus harmonize these various ele- 
ments concerned in the various schools, and the amount 
of good he is thus able to do is immeasurable. 



86 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 



CHAPTER IV. 

STATE GOVERNMENT OF SCHOOLS. 

The State's control of schools was at first vested in 
the Secretary of the Commonwealth. But soon it be- 
came apparent that education needed a separate and inde- 
pendent department, and in 1857'' the separate depart- 
ment of Public Instruction was formed. Although this 
promised much yet it had its disadvantages. It deprived 
the schools of the great political influence of the Secre- 
tary of the Commonwealth. This was a great blow to the 
public school system. The Superintendent of Public In- 
struction was supposed to be no politician. He had no 
political affiliation and no influence. Both political par- 
ties disclaimed responsibility. It seemed as 'if the State 
had abandoned the public school system to its own re- 
sources, and now it was rudderless. But the public 
schools were too close to the hearts of the people to be 
thus abandoned. No one is without interest in the public 
schools. The children of the State always have hosts of 
friends. In fact, it is dangerous for any politician 
of any political party to stand in the way of the 
education of the State's children, and it would mean 
political death to the man and harm to his party. So 
that, instead of losing the political influence of the party 
in power, the schools gained the influence of all parties. 
How could a politician of whatever party affiliation can- 
vass the fathers of his district if he were opposed to the 
education of his children, or if his vote had ever been 
against the best interests of their education ? Fathers or 



^Act April 18, 1857, Sec. i, P. L. 263. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 87 

brothers may be misled, but when the matter is under- 
stood, eternal vengeance would fall on any one who dares 
stand in the way of the best educational advantages of 
the children of the State. It would be safer to interfere 
with freedom of conscience than the free school system. 
For this reason the Governors of the State have been 
most careful in their selection of men to fill the very im- 
portant position of Superintendent of Public Instruction. 
He is generally a father as well as a politician. To be- 
tray the interests of the public schools would be to be- 
tray the interests of his own children. Nor are those 
who are not fathers disinterested. The children never 
had a better, more devoted, or efficient friend than Thad- 
deus Stevens, a bachelor, who may justly be considered 
the father of our public school system. His services in 
connection with the adoption of the free school system 
have been referred to in a previous chapter. 

The above seems to be sufficient reason for the right- 
eous care of our Governors in appointing superintendents 
of pubHc instruction, and these with their own ideas of 
honor have no doubt given to the children of the State 
the services of very tireless and efficient workers for 
State Superintendents. 

SELECTION OF SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 

It might be argued that the Superintendent of Public 
Instruction should be elected by popular vote, as is done 
in many other States. But this method also has its ob- 
jections. It would make it an office to be sought after like 
any other political office, while by appointment method 
the Governor is made responsible for the selection of a 
good officer. The great question is, do we have better 
superintendents by appointment than we would by elec- 
tion by popular vote ? It would seem that the list already 
named is sufficient proof that we have had very good 
men, some of national reputation. Furthermore, the 



88 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

present incumbent, Dr. Schaeffer, appointed by a Repub- 
lican Governor, has repeatedly been reappointed by gov- 
ernors of political faith apparently differing from his. 
It has been conjectured and even stated that this was 
done, at least the last time, to save the odium of an ap- 
pointment of an incompetent applicant of powerful politi- 
cal influence, and again that the office was offered to an- 
other. In reply to this we must say that no such state- 
ments can be taken as facts, and if they were true it only 
shows how the ofifice is protected from political intrigue 
even in a State like Pennsylvania, against whose politics 
so much adverse criticism has been made. 

DR. HIGBEE APPOINTED BY DEMOCRATIC GOVERNOR. 

Dr. E. E. Higbee also was appointed by a Governor 
of the opposite political faith, though it was rumored 
that this was made necessary in order that the appoint- 
ment should be confirmed by the Senate of the State, 
which was controlled by the party opposed to the Gov- 
ernor. This may have had some weight. The strange 
sequel was that the Governor tried to remove him after- 
ward for alleged misconduct in relation to orphaji schools, 
but Dr. Higbee seemed to prove clearly his innocence of 
the charge. 

Again it is stated, almost without doubt, that Dr. 
Schaeffer's appointment by Governor Pattison was con- 
firmed by the Senate only after he had promised to retain 
the old subordinates In the department, especially the 
deputies. Here again the main question is, if such had 
not been the case would we have had better officers? 
They are both what is generally known as self-made 
men. Dr. Wickersham speaks very highly of Hon. Henry 
Houck,^ but says nothing about Mr. Stewart except that 



^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
page 570. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 89 

he "was promoted from a desk in the department where 
his services had been very efficient."^ 

NEITHER DEPUTY A COLLEGE BRED MAN. 

It might be argued that "self-made men" as deputies 
would be more apt to fall in with the superintendent's 
policies than college and university bred men, also that 
it encourages others to strive likewise. On the other 
hand, the great argument in favor of colleges, normal 
schools, and other higher institutions of learning, is that 
they prepare men and women for the various callings of 
life, and yet in the educational department itself all the 
college and university men of the State were rejected 
in the appointment of deputy Superintendents of Public 
Instruction. On the other hand, it must be remembered 
that both had had experience in the department previous 
to their appointment. The great encouraging fact is that 
both served the State for long periods of years, and 
without any charge of misconduct or unfaithfulness ever 
having been made against either. 

DUTIES OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTIQiN. 

The Superintendent of Public Instruction is required 
to report to the Legislature the condition of the schools, 
costs, estimates, etc., and he is to suggest plans for the 
improvement of the system. The amount of good arising 
from his suggestions can hardly be overestimated. 

INFLUENCE OF THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC 
INSTRUCTION. 

Always in harmony with the State Teachers' Associa- 
tion, his suggestions are generally followed, and prob- 
ably no State follows the advice of its Superintendent of 
Public Education more closely than Pennsylvania. Es- 
pecially is this the case in the matter of State normal 

^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
page 585. 



90 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

schools. He has lately been granted the privilege of en- 
dorsing certificates from the normal schools of other 
States, and also diplomas from colleges of recognized 
merit after the abiUty of the applicant to teach has been 
demonstrated by three years of actual teaching, which 
must be attested to by the school officers under whom 
the applicant has taught. 

STATE SUPERINTENDENTS TO SETTLE ALL CONTROVERSIES. 

The State Superintendent must also settle all contro- 
versies, and as he is in no way dependent upon boards of 
directors for his appointment or salary, he can do so 
with impartiality. 

COMMISSIONING OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. 

In issuing commissions to the County Superintendents, 
he may ask that officer to give proof of his qualifications. 
This power has been exercised. Only a few years ago a 
person being elected, who was not qualified for the posi- 
tion, was refused a commission by the Superintendent of 
Public Instruction, and his attorney remarked that he 
would like to do something, but he could not. He may 
remove the County Superintendent for cause, but it is 
seldom necessary. The Superintendent of Public In- 
struction is required to appoint part of the trustees of 
the various normal schools (but this will be discussed 
under Normal Schools), thus putting him in close touch 
with these institutions. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 91 



CHAPTER V. 



TEACHERS INSTITUTE. 



The Teachers' Institutes of Pennsylvania are \yhat the 
County Superintendent makes them. His almost unlim- 
ited control of them makes him entirely responsible. For 
this reason he puts forth every effort to make of them a 
success. All lecturers are selected by him, and the sub- 
ject treated, the arrangements and time are completely 
under his control. 

In other States the various county institutes are more 
or less under control of State authorities. Speakers are 
selected and the subjects assigned by State authorities. 
In such cases the County Superintendent has no authority 
and very little interest. In fact, no one is responsible, 
and no one puts forth any strong effort for success. 

With the County Superintendent in full control he 
takes great pride in his institutes. He uses his influence 
with teachers and others, that his institute may be a pro- 
nounced success. This is as it should be. It does add 
very greatly to his duties, still he can be of more service 
to the schools of his district in this way than by doing 
anything else. All must agree that no one better under- 
stands the needs of the county or division than he. 

CRITICISM OF PENNSYLVANIA TEACHERS' INSTITUTES. 

The great criticism offered against the Teachers' In- 
stitutes of Pennsylvania is that they cater too much to 
the general public, and are therefore more entertaining 
than instructive. Since the public judge the institutes 
as well as do the teachers, it seems necessary to try to 



92 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

please both, besides nothing is more necessary than that 
pubHc sentiment be properly molded, for all improve- 
ments must be supported largely by the public, so that 
making the institute an event in which the general public 
will be interested, entertained and instructed, does very 
much toward strengthening the public backing of the 
schools, though often the ideals held forth in glowing 
colors to parents and even pupils spoil their opinion of 
their teacher, because he or she does not resemble the 
ideal model, even though in some cases it is beyond hu- 
man attainment. 

In this way they often defeat the very end toward 
which they are striving. 

INSTRUCTORS OF NO EXPERIENCE IN TEACHING IN COM- 
MON SCHOOLS. 

Too often, some one who has never taught in the com- 
mon schools tells how things ought to be and tvhat teach- 
ers ought to do, how they ought to govern, etc., when, as 
a fellow teacher openly expressed it to an institute in- 
structor, **by such a method you could not discipline my 
school for ten minutes. My boys would laugh at you 
and put you out of the room with scorn." 

The truth of the matter is that for the working out of 
ideal plans you need ideal pupils, and everything ideal. 
It is like formulating a recitation of questions and an- 
swers. Since the pupils are to do their own thinking, 
they very often do not think as the author expects, and 
his next question may not fit the last answer. The 
strange part is that those of no experience in common 
country schools are just the ones to lay down plans and 
formulate lessons which, they think and say, are just 
what the country teacher needs, and yet every one who 
tries it, probably fails. This is apt to happen in any in- 
stitute, but if they are public afifairs, the pupils and pa- 
rents, being present and hearing these glowing ideas, ex- 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 93 

pect the practice of these plans, and in a measure coerce 
the teacher into trying them, when he but too well knows 
the result. 

directors' day. 

Thursday is generally directors' day, and a wise in- 
structor can do untold and unmeasurable good for the 
teachers and schools, but an unwise or indiscreet instruc- 
tor may beget such expectations into the minds of direc- 
tors as will cause endless trouble and annoyance to the 
teacher. The temptation to the latter is very great, for 
"dressed up" statements please the average gathering of 
people better than the unadulterated truth. It is surpris- 
ing to note how many are interested in preparing others 
for teaching in the common schools when they them- 
selves never taught a common school in their life and 
know little about it. This seems to b~e more marked in 
the teachers' profession than any other. 

EFFECT ON A TEACHER. 

On the other hand, it is claimed that this entertain- 
ment rests the teachers and sends them back to their 
work reinvigorated and encouraged with a light heart. 
How much of this is true we do not know, for it is some- 
thing incapable of measurement. Again it is claimed 
that there is much truth told in an amusing way, so that 
both instruction and amusement is furnished. How much 
truth there is in this depends largely on the instructors 
and the teachers. 

LIBERALITY OF THE STATE TO TEACHERS' INSTITUTES. 

No State is more liberal in the support of teachers' 
institutes than Pennsylvania. The teachers are paid for 
attending institute the same as if they were teaching, and 
the County Superintendent receives from the County 
Treasurer the sum of one dollar for every three days 
spent by the teachers of the county in attendance at the 



94 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

institute for that year.^ This sum may always be sixty 
dollars ; but in no case more than two hundred dollars. 
But the vouchers presented by the County Superintend- 
ent must show the sum actually spent. Thus it will be 
seen that institutes are intended to be free, but in many 
counties the County Superintendent assesses the teachers 
with what he calls a registration fee of a quarter or half 
a dollar, and sometimes a dollar. In addition to this, 
there are evening lectures, which are not free, but at 
which all must pay admission fees, except teachers who 
have been assessed a registration fee, in which case they 
receive tickets for all the lectures without additional 
charge. 

The roll of teachers is called twice a day, to assure the 
Superintendent that all the teachers are actually attend- 
ing. 

At first thought, it seems that it is a good thing to call 
the roll of teachers and compel their attendance or re- 
fuse to pay them. Still it also causes some discontent. 
Some, very few, would prefer to teach. Others look 
upon Institute Week as a holiday week, to have a good 
time and not pay anything for it, in fact to be paid for it. 

Hence, too often a young man and young woman at- 
tends institute together, perhaps both are teachers, pos- 
sibly only one, but their thoughts are too often on sub- 
jects more interesting to them than school teaching or 
any pedagogical subject. This is one reason why the lec- 
tures are so entertaining, that this class may be inter- 
ested. But others besides teachers make this a place to 
enjoy each others' society, under pretense of attending 
institutes. Nevertheless, many there are who thirst and 
hunger for improved methods and ideals of teaching, 
and eagerly try to digest every one offered. This class 



^Act April 9, 1867, Sec. 3, P. L., 52. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 95 

includes, we should think, judging as one who has min- 
gled with all, a very large majority of the teachers. 

SEPARATE teachers' INSTITUTES FOR CITIES. 

Cities and boroughs having not less than fifty teach- 
ers may hold separate institutes.^ In order to be lawful, 
the board of directors or controller of the city or borough 
which has elected a Superintendent must authorize the 
holding of the institute by a resolution at any stated 
meeting, duly recorded. The institutes thus authorized 
are, in all matters pertaining to the holding of institutes, 
in no wise subject to the authority and jurisdiction of the 
Superintendent of the Schools of the county in which 
said city or borough is located. The city or borough 
superintendent has the same authority as the County Su- 
perintendent.'' There are legitimate reasons why this 
should be thus allowed. It is in harmony with the in- 
dependence of county and city government of schools. 
The ideals of the city or borough superintendent and his 
teachers may differ from those of the County Superin- 
tendent and his teachers. 



^Act May 24, 1887, Sec. i, P. L., 196. 

""Act May 24, 1887, P. L., 196 ; also Act June 28, 1895, P- L-, 415. 



96 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 



CHAPTER VI. 

NORMAL SCHOOLS. 

The law makes it plain that the normal schools are to 
be controlled by a board of trustees composed of eigh- 
teen members; nine elected by the contributors or stock- 
holders, and nine appointed by the Superintendent of 
Public Instruction. A list of double the number to be 
appointed are nominated by the stockholders, from which 
the State Superintendent selects the number required. 
If they are not satisfactory, he, with the advice and con- 
sent of the Governor, may appoint any one else whom 
he may think more suitable."^ This last privilege he sel- 
dom exercises, but if he does it is generally believed that, 
by personal or political influence, the principal of the 
school causes others than those nominated to be ap- 
pointed. Especially is this evident if the ones thus ap- 
pointed are strong supporters of the principal. 

Sometimes one hears rumors that the normal schools 
are to be made purely State institutions. Principals who 
are at variance with their trustees are very anxious that 
this change should be made. There would of course be 
advantages and disadvantages. Governed entirely by 
State trustees the institutions would be left largely to 
themselves, except where a man of political influence 
should decide to interfere. 

TRUSTEES. 

At present the local trustees govern the institutions 
almost entirely, as the State trustees are generally too 
far from the school to conveniently attend all the meet- 



^Act April 12, 1875, Sec. 3, P. L., 43. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 97 

ings of the board, besides they seldom have any money 
invested and therefore are not as much interested as the 
local or home trustees. Nor are they as well acquainted 
with the workings of the school as the local trustees. 
Then we can but conjecture the result if there were no 
local trustees. Even now it is claimed that principals 
largely control the appointment of State trustees. This 
is hartily true to the extent claimed, as they are almost 
always appointed from a list recommended by the stock- 
holders. 

POLITICS AND STATE TRUSTEES. 

Still there have been cases where friends of the prin- 
cipal of a school were appointed against the recommen- 
dations of the stockholders. 

Pennsylvania has more normal schools and normal 
students than any other State in the Union except Massa- 
chusetts and New York."^ By the new course of study 
it requires three years to complete a course, and the di- 
plomas are recognized in New Jersey and most other 
States in the Union, although, but very lately, Pennsyl- 
vania began recognizing diplomas from normal schools 
of other States. 

The classes of 1903 were the first to graduate under 
the revised course. This change had long been con- 
templated. One strong reason was because normal 
schools of other States required much more for a di- 
ploma than Pennsylvania. At a meeting of the princi- 
pals of normal schools, November 8th, 1900, the Super- 
intendent, who always calls and presides at such meet- 
ings, strongly recommended an extension of the course 
by adding a year's work, and by the consent of the prin- 
cipals the change was made. Thus it will be seen that 
the course in the various normal schools is the same 



*Report of Commissioner of Education, igoi-og. 



98 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

throughout the State, though some emphasize one de- 
partment more than another. 

All changes in the course must be made at a meeting 
of the principals called by the Superintendent of Public 
Instruction. He must also approve of the changes in 
order that they may be lawful."^ 

The revised course is as follows : 

JUNIOR YEAR. 

Language, Pedagogics, School Management, English 
Grammar, Reading and Orthography. Latin, to Caesar. 
Mathematics: Arithmetic, Algebra. Natural Science: 
Physiology. Historical Science: Geography, U. S. His- 
tory, Civil Government of United States and Pennsyl- 
vania. Arts: Penmanship (an approved system, with a 
fair handwriting). Drawing (daily lessons for at least 
twenty weeks). Bookkeeping (single entry with a knowl- 
edge of common business paper). Physical Culture. 

MIDDLE YEAR. 

Pedagogics: Psychology, Methods of Teaching. 
Language: Rhetoric and Composition, with elocution- 
ary exercises ; three books of Caesar. Mathematics : 
Plane Geometry. Natural Science: Elements of Chem- 
istry; Elements of Zoology; Botany. Historical Sci- 
ence: General History. Arts: Manual Training, 
Physical Culture. 

SENIOR YEAR. 

Pedagogics : History of Education, Methods of Teach- 
ing; Practice of Teaching in the Model School (at least 
twenty weeks, forty-five minutes daily) ; Thesis. 
Language: Literature and Classics, Three Orations of 
Cicero; Three Books of Virgil, Review English Gram- 
mar. Mathematics : Solid Geometry, Plane Trigonom- 

^Act May 20, 1857, Sec. 6, Cause 7, P, L., 583. ' 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 99 

etry and Surveying, Review Arithmetic. Natural Sci- 
ence; Physics, Geology. Physical Culture. 

SUBSTITUTIONS. 

The followring substitutions may be made : 

Junior year: German or French for Latin. 

Middle year: Greek, German or French for Chemistry. 

Senior year : English History, Ethics and either Logic 
or Astronomy for Latin; Greek, German or French for 
Solid Geometry, Trigonometry and Surveying. 

GRADUATION. 

On graduating in the above course the student re- 
ceives a certificate granting him the right to teach any- 
where in the State without further examination what- 
ever. After two years of successful teaching certified 
to by the County Superintendent and directors under 
whom he teaches, he secures a normal diploma, which is 
a life certificate. Formerly these two certificates were 
accompanied by the degrees Bachelor in the Elements 
(B. E.) and Master in the Elements (M. E.) respec- 
tively, but this has been discontinued. Some larger cit- 
ies, as Philadelphia and Pittsburg, having many schools 
and a higher standard of certificate and wages, accept no 
certificate of any kind, until the applicant has passed 
examinations under their own Superintendent. 

The normal schools oflfer also a supplementary course 
in addition to the regular course leading to the degree 
Bachelor of Pedagogics, as follows : Philosophy of Edu- 
cation, Advanced Psychology, Discussion of Educational 
Questions, School Supervision, including School Law, 
Devices for Teaching Educational Theories, etc. School 
Apparatus and Appliances, Description, Use, Prepara- 
tion. 

Leading to the degree of Master of Pedagogics, two 
years' teaching after graduation in the regular course; 



loo THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

Professional Reading with Abstracts ; History of Educa- 
tion in the United States (Boone) ; European Schools 
(Klemar) ; System of Education (Parsons) ; Sanitary 
Science, School Architecture, etc. Thesis/ 

A full equivalent will be accepted for any of the text 
books named above. The courses are determined by the 
Board of Principals at their annual meeting, and they are 
the same for all normal schools. 

All candidates for graduation are required to attend 
the full senior year, but candidates for the pedagogical 
degrees may prepare the required work in absentia. 

FAILURES. 

A candidate failing in an examination at one normal 
school under the State Board of Examiners cannot try 
again at another normal school that year. All who are 
admitted to the middle or senior classes must pass an 
examination under the State board of examiners. 

EXAMINATIONS UNDER THE STATE BOARD OF EXAMINERS. 

It is not supposed that the State Board of Examiners 
will examine any candidate who is not recommended by 
the faculty, still the principals of normal schools may 
recommend candidates even against the protest of mem- 
bers of their faculty. This may be when the candidate 
is a graduate of a high school, whose principal or super-' 
intendent strongly recommends the candidate. 

The temptation is especially strong if the high 
school sends or may send many students to the normal 
through the influence of a principal or superintendent 
recommending the same. The examining board is sup- 
posed to depend to some extent upon the grades made by 
the students during the year, but they often pass when 
their year's grade in one or more branches is below the 
passing mark (70 per cent.). One reason for this is dif- 



^Catalogues of 1902-03. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA loi 

ference in different teachers' marking. The principal of 
the school is always a member of the examining board, 
and his suggestions or recommendations are very largely 
followed, but not always, for very much depends upon 
the kind of men constituting the board. The argument is 
very plain that the principal and faculty know much 
more about the students who have been with them a year 
or more than an examiner who has given them four or 
five questions to be answered in possibly an hour. Be- 
sides, the classes, often numbering a hundred, furnish 
very many papers to be examined in two or three days. 

It very often happens that the State Board of Exam- 
iners reject candidates, especially in some schools, but 
often they all pass who are recommended by the faculty. 
Each examiner prepares his own questions, so that ques- 
tions cannot be stolen from the capitol. 

No person can graduate who does not receive four out 
of five votes of the State Board of Examiners. Prac- 
tical teachers, though not students of a normal school, 
may take the examinations with a graduating class and 
receive a State certificate, but no degree and no diploma. 

State boards can grant no provisional certificates, and 
their certificate of a student passing from junior to mid- 
dle year or from middle to senior year is no certificate 
to teach, and any one holding such, and not finishing 
the course, must pass examination under the County Su- 
perintendent. 

PRINCIPALS AND FACULTIES OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS. 

The principals of the normal schools are as a class 
gentlemen of culture, refinement and strong educational 
ideals, but it seems very strange that only one or two are 
university graduates, and not all are college graduates. 

Faculties of normal schools are largely made up of 
teachers recommended by the principal. 

The wages paid principals range from $1,500 to $5,000 



102 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

and home, yet there are but few university men oc- 
cupying those positions. It seems strange that an in- 
stitution should offer to specially prepare students for 
teachers when the head of the institution is not thus pre- 
pared, but rather a so-called self-made man. Probably 
the amount of business capacity is largely taken into con- 
sideration in selecting principals, as a principal's suc- 
cess depends largely upon his business capacity. Among 
the faculties are numbered very many college and uni- 
versity graduates and thoroughly professional workers. 
Very often a teacher declines promotion to a principal or 
vice-principalship, if he does not choose to assume the 
duties devolving upon those officers, but prefers to re- 
main a thoroughly professional teacher. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 103 



CHAPTER VII. 



DISTRIBUTION OF STATE APPROPRIATIONS 

Until recently the State appropriation was distributed 
according to the number of taxables as certified to by the 
commissioners at their triennial assessment.^ But when 
the law was passed to give five millions to the common 
schools out of the State funds in 1893, many, especially 
of the country districts, felt that this method was un- 
fair. 

The Grangers, an organization of farmers, were espe- 
cially active and influential in having the law passed for 
the large State aid, and they saw that the cities received 
a larger proportion per pupil or per teacher than the 
country districts. As they then could control forty mem- 
bers of the Legislature, regardless of party, their desires 
were respected, and in 1897 a law was passed by /which 
one-third of the appropriations is distributed on the basis 
of the number of paid teachers employed for the full an- 
nual term of the district, one-third on the basis of 
the number of children of school age between the 
ages of six and sixteen residing in the respective dis- 
tricts, the remaining third on the basis of the number of 
taxables as returned by the last triennial assessment.'' 

This was a compromise and seemed, in a measure, to 
suit all parties. It was much fairer than the preceding 
method. 

It is plain to see the arguments in favor of the various 
plans for distributing school appropriation. 

In some country districts teachers have very few pu- 

^Act April 17, 1865, Sec. i, P. L., 61. 

"Act of July 15, 1897, P. L, No. 215, page 271. 



104 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

pils, so that if the appropriation is divided according to 
the number of pupils these would receive a compara- 
tively small sum, while they needed it most, as they re- 
ceive the smallest salary, though their patrons generally 
pay the highest rate of tax. They would ask for distri- 
bution according to the number of teachers employed. 

In some poor farming districts there are large numbers 
of children, but the valuation of properties is very low, 
sometimes so low that they pay very low rent, two per 
cent, on the value of the property, and they are not re- 
sponsible for loss. These people would wish the distri- 
bution according to the number of pupils, using the same 
arguments as those mentioned above, viz. : that their 
teachers receive the lowest wages and still the tax rate is 
the highest. They add to this, that this is the only fair 
method of distributing the State's appropriation, if the 
State is to be impartial and treat all her children alike. 
One child of the State deserves as much help financially 
as any other child, therefore they argue, the State should 
divide her appropriations according to the number of 
children. 

The rich cities, the mining and manufacturing towns 
are not without arguments in favor of the distribution of 
funds according to the assessed value of the districts. 
The country districts say to them: "You are rich and 
need the money least. Look at your low tax rate." They 
answer, "We have enriched our districts, you do like- 
wise. We pay the most tax from our districts and we 
deserve most in return. Should our thrift be taxed? 
Should not the State encourage us and feel thankful that 
we have done so much for her?" They argue that all 
other funds are distributed according to the assessed 
value of property, and that when the State wishes funds, 
she taxes her citizens according to her wealth. Again, 
any other method would be taking money from our dis- 
tricts and giving it to other districts. This is unfair. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 105 

The argument that the richest district pays most tax 
is not quite fair, since the indirect taxes are the great 
sources of the State's funds, and they may not in any 
way depend upon the assessed value of the property of 
various districts. It may depend on the amount of to- 
bacco or strong drinks manufactured, sold or consumed. 
The method of distribution now employed, taking all 
these arguments into consideration, seems to be the most 
satisfactory and fair. It really takes sides with none of 
the different claimants, but neither does it take sides 
against any of them, and as each has part of its claims 
granted, it is a case of "live but let live," and people 
generally are satisfied. 

CERTIFICATES TO COLLEGE GRADUtATES. 

The Superintendent of Public Instruction may issue 
certificates to graduates of colleges having legal power 
to confer degrees,^ which certificate is permanent in 
character. In order to obtain the same the candidate 
must have taught three full terms in the public schools 
of the State, and the candidate must also be recom- 
mended by the board or boards of directors and County 
Superintendents under whom he taught, and for cause 
this certificate may be annulled by the Superintendent of 
Public Instruction.' 



^See College and University Councils. 
■Act of May 10, 1893, Sec. i, P. L., 39. 



io6 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 



CHAPTER Vni. 



CITIES OF PENNSYLVANIA. 



The cities of Pennsylvania are divided into three 
classes. The law says : "Those containing a population 
of one million or over shall constitute the first class. 
Those containing a population of one hundred thousand 
and under one million shall constitute the second class. 
Those containing a population under one hundred thou- 
san shall constitute the third class."" 

DUTIES AND POWERS OF CONTROLLERS. 

Cities of the third class elect controllers from the vari- 
ous wards, and each ward is entitled to one controller to 
serve four years. These boards of controllers of the 
various cities have power to levy taxes, and the same 
rights and privileges in relation to real and personal 
property as is now by law conferred upon the school di- 
rectors of the several districts of the commonwealth.^ 

CITY SUPERINTENDENT. 

Any city, township or borough of over five thousand 
inhabitants may elect its own superintendent of schools.' 
He must receive his commission like a County Superin- 
tendent, but may be refused a commission for reasons 
like those elected as County Superintendents. He is 
not subject to the County Superintendent in any way.' 



^Act June 25, 1895, Sec. 2, P. L., 276. 
■Act June 16, 1891, Sec. i, P. L., 306. 
•Act April 9, 1867, Sec. 7, P. L., 53. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 107 

The controllers of a city may establish a high school 
and govern it as they govern other schools.^ 

CITY HIGH SCHOOLS MAY BE ESTABLISHED. 

High schools may be established by two or more dis- 
tricts jointly, and they are governed jointly. A high 
school maintaining a course of study of four years be- 
yond the common branches is a high school of the first 
grade; one maintaining three years of study beyond the 
common branches is a high school of the second grade; 
those maintaining a course of study of two years beyond 
the common branches constitute a high school of the 
third grade.^ 

A high school of the iirst grade receives annually 
eight hundred dollars, of the second grade, six hun- 
dred dollars, and one of the third grade a sum of 
four hundred dollars.^ The high school is under the su- 
pervision of the superintendent of the district in which 
it is, and the course of study must be approved by the 
Superintendent of Public Instruction. 

SPECIAL LAWS FOR CITIES. 

Very often the Legislature is asked to pass special 
laws for certain cities, and they generally obtain what 
they ask, as it in no way interferes with the schools of 
other districts. 

SPECIAL TRAINING SCHOOLS FOR LARGE CITIES. 

Large cities, as Philadelphia and Pittsburg, do not ac- 
cept normal diplomas from any outside source, but re- 
quire all who wish to teach in their schools to pass ex- 



^Act May 26, 1893, Sec. i, P. L., 146. 
''Act June 28, 189S, Sec. 3, P. L., 413. 
"Act June 28, 1895, Sec. 4, P. L,, 414. 



io8 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

aminations. Each city may have its own training or 
normal school, from which it obtains a large percentage 
of the teachers required for its schools. 

The normal schools of these cities have a more ex- 
tended course than the other normal schools of the State. 
They differ materially from the other normal schools, for 
they are specially designed for graduates of the high 
schools of the same city in which they are found. Again, 
the requirements of pupils in large cities differ materially 
from those of country or town pupils. What one under- 
stands best the other understands least. The long tramps 
in the wildwood, the mountain climbing, the fishing along 
pathless streams with simplest and fewest pieces of cloth- 
ing that may be discarded in a few minutes for a wade or 
swim, the broad fields of waving grain, rustling corn, 
and the bare and brown ploughed field, all are well 
known and much enjoyed by the boys and girls of the 
country. 

The call of the crow, the low of the herd, the moan of 
the owl, the song of the wren, the whistle of the quail 
and whip-poor-will, the shrill chirp of the cricket, the 
evening call of the kneedeep and a thousand other voices 
with thousands of experiences forming the daily pastimes 
of these children of nature, supply abundant stores of 
knowledge for the apperceptive training of the poorest of 
rustic children. But they are entirely foreign to the 
children of the crowded portions of our large cities. City 
children have entirely different experiences, and the 
teaching must be from an entirely different standpoint. 
If teaching is to be from the known to the unknown, and 
if the knowledge of city children is different from that 
of country or town children, the teacher must understand 
how to properly present his subject so as to use this 
knowledge of the child aright. Hence the difference in 
teaching these different classes of children. If the 
method is to be different the training of teachers must 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 109 

necessarily be diiferent, and therefore the training in 
normal schools should be different. 

The object to be obtained in teaching city children is 
different from that of the training of country children. 
Since the country children know more of nature than 
the city children, and since they need more of such 
knowledge, their course of study should be different. 
And since city children will be called upon, in after life, 
for very diiferent kinds of employment from the natural 
rustic form of life, their education must be accordingly. 
This requires a course of study specially adapted to their 
needs — a course that will train them for their special 
calling in Hfe. It would in a large measure be what the 
rustic child would care little for and of which he would 
understand less. And the city boy would understand 
little of the course of study planned for the country boy. 
Hence normal schools should be accordingly. 

POWER OF SUB-DISTRICT DIRECTORS. 

Boards of directors of sub-districts of cities have 
power to purchase lots, repair and enlarge buildings 
thereon, purchase furniture, books, stationery, etc., and 
provide for the payment thereof."^ 

In cities of the second and third class, central boards 
of directors may establish and maintain schools for in- 
struction in the mechanic arts and kindred subjects.^ 



^Act of 1881, page 2. 

='Act May 21, 1895, P- L-, 85. 



no THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 



CHAPTER IX. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 
COLLEGES. 

Universities and colleges are required to report to the 
Superintendent of Public Instruction the number of 
students in each class and the total number of graduates, 
if any, the course of studies pursued, financial resources 
and expenses, the future prospects of their several insti- 
tutions, accompanied with such remarks as may illustrate 
the general condition; so much of it as he may deem 
proper he must lay before the Legislature in his annual 
report."" 

Five or more persons, three of whom must be citizens 
of the commonwealth, may associate themselves together 
for the purpose of obtaining a charter of incorporation 
for a college, university or theological seminary, with 
power to confer degrees.'' Notice must be given of such 
institutions in the county papers of the proper county. 
The certificate must be acknowledged by at least three 
of the subscribers and presented to the proper law 
judge, who, if he find it lawful and not injurious 
to the community, must endorse and have it trans- 
mitted to the Superintendent of Public Instruction 
or a copy of the same.^ No charter can be granted 
unless passed upon, as to its merits, by a board 
called the "College and University Council," which con- 
sists of twelve members, namely, the Governor, Attor- 

^Act April I, 1836, Sec. i, P. L., 1835-6, page 342. 

'Act June 26, 1895, Sec. i, P. L., 327. 

'Act June 26, 1895, Sec. 4, P. L, 328. , ^ 



OF PENNSYLVANIA in 

ney-general and the Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
tion, who are ex officio members, three members selected 
from the presiding officers of undenominational col- 
leges or universities, three persons selected from 
the presiding officers of denominational colleges or 
universities, and three persons holding official relation- 
ship to common schools of the State. Those not ex 
officio members are appointed by the Governor, with the 
advice and consent of the Senate, for a term of four 
years.^ No institution can be chartered to confer de- 
grees unless it has assets amounting to five hundred 
thousand dollars invested in buildings, apparatus, and 
endowments for the exclusive use of promoting instruc- 
tion. The faculty must contain at least six college pro- 
fessors, who devote all their time to the instruction of its 
college or university classes, nor can any baccalaureate 
degree in art, science, philosophy, or literature be con- 
ferred upon any student who has not completed a col- 
lege or university course covering four years. The 
standard of admission to these four year courses or to 
advanced classes in these courses is subject to the ap- 
proval of the said council."* All institutions thus char- 
tered are subject to visitation and inspection by repre- 
sentatives of the council, and any one failing to keep up 
the required standard, the court, on the recommendation 
of the council, revokes the power to confer degrees.' 

Colleges incorporated before the passage of this act 
we're required to have funds amounting to one hundred 
thousand dollars ($100,000) invested. This does not 
apply to institutions possessing capital stock and estab- 
lished for purposes of private gain or profit.* 



^Act June 26, 1895, Sec. 5, P. L., 329. 
='Act June 26, 1895, Sec. 6, P. L., 329. 
'Act June 26, 1895, Sec. 9, P. L., 330. 
*Act June 26, 1895, Sec. 12, P. L., 330. 



112 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

EVENING SCHOOLS. 

Evening schools may be opened upon the application 
of twenty or more pupils through their parents, the pu- 
pils being above six years. These schools must be kept 
open at least four months, consisting of twenty days of 
two hours each, providing the attendance does not fall 
below fifteen, per month, average daily attendance. If 
it does, the directors or controllers may close the said 
evening schools at their option. The qualifications of 
teachers and expenses of the schools must be the same as 
that for the common schools."^ Evening high schools may 
also be established. If any school has over fifty pupils 
an additional teacher may be employed, but no student 
can be admitted to evening school who is unemployed 
during the day, or in actual attendance upon any school 
during the day, public or private."^ 

LENGTH OF MONTH. 

A school month in Pennsylvania consists of twenty 
days' actual teaching, but schools cannot be kept open 
during county institute or on any Saturday or on any 
legal holiday.^ 

PUBLIC LIBRARIES. 

Except in cities of the first and second class directors 
and controllers may establish a system of free public 
libraries, on a substantial basis throughout the common- 
wealth, if a majority of the members of the various 
boards of directors or controllers may so decide.' School 
houses may be used for this purpose, or other buildings 
may be purchased or rented, and a tax may be levied to 
provide funds for the same. The library or libraries of 

^Act May 22, 1883, Sec. i, 2 and 3, P- L., 37. 
'Act June 25, 1885, Sec. i, P. L., 176. 
'Act June 28, 1895, Sec. i, P. L., 411. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA. 113 

each district are controlled by a board of nine trustees 
acting as agents and appointees of the school board, who 
approve all plans for its storage and accommodation, 
purchase all necessities, appoint all employees and make 
all regulations and do all things necessary to its govern- 
ment, preservation and maintenance, subject to the 
board's approval/ 

The trustees must report every year to the school 
board, and oftener if required. The libraries are under 
the supervision of the State librarian. The school board 
may receive endowments and apply the same to the pur- 
pose for which made or given. 

Physiology and Hygiene. — The law requires that physi- 
ology and hygiene be taught as a regular branch to all 
students in all departments of the public schools of the 
commonwealth, including special reference to the effect 
of alcoholic drinks and stimulants and narcotics on the 
human system. Any violation of these requirements sub- 
jects the district to the penalty of forfeiting its share of 
the State appropriation.'' This same act also requires 
the teachers to be examined in physiology and hygiene. 

THE SCHOOL JOURNAL. 

The School Journal is the official organ of the depart- 
ment of common schools of the commonwealth. A copy 
of the same is sent to the various boards of school direc- 
tors of the State, and the cost of the same is charged to 
the contingent expenses of the department of common 
schools." 

Thus it will be seen how the system of education de- 
veloped out of a conglomerate of independent systems 
and how the improvements have been made. It will 
probably be noted that very often the law preceded and 

^Act June 28, 1895, Sec. 4, P. L., 411. 
^Act April 2, 1885, Sec. 2, P. L., 7. 
^Act May 8, 1855, Sec. 9, P. L., 511. 



114 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

molded popular sentiment. It will also be noted how 
certain laws, when forced upon people against their will, 
may be misapplied and misconstrued, so as to cause just 
what they were intended to prevent. 

No one in any way connected with the system of edu- 
cation in Pennsylvania can fail to note the great influ- 
ence for good a Superintendent of Public Instruction 
can exert when he is a man of integrity and ability. 
Many improvements in our system had their inception in 
the mind of the person at the head of the educational 
department. 

Lom Salaries. — His repeated urging of higher salaries 
for teachers, however, seems to be unheeded. In 1893-94 
the average wages in Pennsylvania for male teachers 
was $44.16; for females $33.05, standing twenty-fifth in 
the Union in salaries to teachers. The average wages of 
male teachers per month in the United States was $44.76 
and for females $37.48. In the North Atlantic division 
the average monthly wages was $54.89 for males and 
$37.09 for females. The expenditure per capita for 
common schools in Pennsylvania in 1870-71 was $2.36; 
in 1879-80, $1.72; in 1889-90; $2.46; in 1893-94, $3.26. 
In the North Atlantic division in 1870-71, $2.38; in 
1879-80, $1.97; in 1889-90, $2.76; in 1893-94, $3.17. 
In the United States for 1870-71, $1.75; in 1879-80, 
$1.56; in 1889-90, $2.24; in 1893-94, $2.51. The ex- 
penditure per pupil in 1893-94 in Pennsylvania for sal- 
aries was $11.85 for the year; in United States, $11.81; 
in the North Atlantic division, $15.55. 

This shows comparatively very low salaries paid 
teachers in Pennsylvania. It is unfortunate that the 
State standing second in wealth in the Union should be 
twenty-fifth in the amount of salary paid the average 
teacher. A recent law requires that after the school year 
of 1903-04 no teachers' salary can be less than $35 per 
month. 



OF PENNSYLVANIA 115 

Improvement in schools should keep pace with other 
progress, but changes in educational methods must take 
cognizance of popular sentiment in a State under popular 
government. We can only hope that the powers that 
drive the onward movement of education may ever re- 
member that they are dealing with something no less 
eternal than mind. 



OCT 6 1909 



